Delusions of Gender (43 page)

1
(Kane, 2006b); epigraph and block quotation included.

2
(Summers, 2005), para. 5.

3
Quoted in (Edge, 2005b).

4
(Brizendine, 2007), p. 34.

5
(Sax, 2006), p. 28.

6
(Kane, 2009), p. 373.

7
(Rothman, 1988), p. 130.

8
(Smith, 2005), pp. 51 and 52, respectively.

9
(Nosek, 2007b), p. 184.

10
See (Greenwald et al., 2009).

11
(Gonzalez & Koestner, 2005), p. 407.

12
(Jost, Pelham, & Carvallo, 2002), p. 597.

13
Jost et al. found even stronger evidence of implicit paternalism in the
nontraditional sample (in which the mother’s last name was not the same as the father’s last name), however, they don’t present the data for an analysis in which identical names were excluded.

14
(Jost, Pelham, & Carvallo, 2002), p. 588.

15
(Orenstein, 2000).

1
(Moon, Cooper, & Fifer, 1993).

2
(Quinn et al., 2002).

3
For example (Kelly et al., 2007).

4
(Hornik, Risenhoover, & Gunnar, 1987).

5
(Barrett, Campos, & Emde, 1996).

6
(Nash & Krawczyk, 1994). See also (Pomerleau et al., 1990), although this research did not find differences in the youngest age group.

7
(Clearfield & Nelson, 2006).

8
(Donovan, Taylor, & Leavitt, 2007).

9
(Mondschein, Adolph, & Tamis-LeMonda, 2000).

10
For example (Adams et al., 1995; Dunn, Bretherton, & Munn, 1987; Fivush, 1989; Leaper, Anderson, & Sanders, 1998).

11
Several researchers have suggested that implicit attitudes should be especially likely to predict more spontaneous and less controllable behaviours and judgements (e.g., [Strack & Deutsch, 2004], and this is consistent with some experimental work. However, a recent meta-analysis suggests that implicit measures are equally capable of predicting more readily controlled behaviours (Greenwald et al., 2009).

12
(Castelli, De Dea, & Nesdale, 2008), p. 1512.

13
See discussion in (Castelli, Zogmaister, & Tomelleri, 2009). Also (Aboud & Doyle, 1996).

14
(Castelli, Zogmaister, & Tomelleri, 2009).

15
(Tenenbaum & Leaper, 2002). A weak relationship was found in the middle school years. This was a meta-analysis, therefore gender attitudes were assessed in different ways in children and adults.

16
. (Weitzman, Birns, & Friend, 1985), p. 897.

17
(Lytton & Romney, 1991).

18
(Freeman, 2007).

19
(Kane, 2006a), quotations from pp. 156, 157, 158, 161, and 161, respectively.

20
(Kane, 2006a), p. 172.

21
In part, this is probably because males are higher status than females, and so it is more acceptable to cross up than to cross down. But as well, there is a fear
that feminine interests in boys portends future psychological maladjustment and homosexuality (Martin, 1990; Martin, 2005; Sandnabba & Ahlberg, 1999).

22
(Kane, 2008).

23
(Orenstein, 2000), p. 4.

24
(Alexander, Wilcox, & Woods, 2009).

25
The ‘hot potato’ effect, whereby children find attractive novel toys less appealing when they are labelled as being for the other sex, was demonstrated in four- to five-year-old children by (Martin, Eisenbud, & Rose, 1995).

26
(van de Beek et al., 2009).

27
(Servin, Bohlin, & Berlin, 1999).

28
(Sax, 2006), p. 26.

29
The potential importance of familiarity in preference has been noted by (Zosuls et al., 2009), for example.

30
As found by (Servin, Bohlin, & Berlin, 1999).

31
As found by (Campbell et al., 2000).

32
(Bandura & Bussey, 2004), p. 696.

1
‘What color for your baby?’
Parents’
14, no. 3 (March 1939), p. 98. Quoted in (Paoletti, 1997), p. 32.

2
(Hurlbert & Ling, 2007; Alexander, 2003).

3 (Lawson, 2007). Quotations from paras. 4, 5, 8, 8, and 10, respectively.

4
(Paoletti, 1997), pp. 30 and 31, respectively.

5
The salience of gender in the social world, and the active role played by the child in gender development that the salience and importance of gender motivates, has been highlighted by a number of researchers, for example (Arthur et al., 2008; Bem, 1983; Bigler & Liben, 2007; Martin & Halverson, 1981). The material that follows all draws on the insights of Gender Schema Theory and especially Developmental Intergroup Theory.

6
(Gelman, Taylor, & Naguyen, 2004).

7
(Levy & Haaf, 1994).

8
For example (Serbin, Poulin-Dubois, & Eichstedt, 2002), also (Poulin-Dubois et al., 2002), who found that knowledge was seen earlier in girls than in boys.

9
(Zosuls et al., 2009).

10
(Martin, Ruble, & Szkrybalo, 2002; Martin & Halverson, 1981).

11
(Martin & Ruble, 2004), p. 67.

12
(Ruble, Lurye, & Zosuls, 2008), p. 2.

13
(Martin & Ruble, 2004), p. 68.

14
Carol Martin, personal communication, September 9, 2009.

15
(Martin, Eisenbud, & Rose, 1995).

1
(Bem, 1983), p. 611.

2
(Bem, 1989).

3
(Bem, 1983), p. 612.

4
Referring to the title of Sandra Bem’s autobiography (Bem, 1998). At the end of the book the Bems’ children, Jeremy and Emily, then in their early twenties, reflect on their childhood experiences. (In addition to trying to raise ‘gender-aschematic’ children, the Bems also wanted to raise their children in an antihomophobic and sex-positive way.) Both were grateful for what their unconventional rearing had done for them (said Jeremy, ‘I get to be a complete person. That’s what it comes down to’) and were positive about the beliefs their parents had tried to convey to them in their unconventional fashion, although sometimes they disagreed with the details of the implementation. As Sandra Bem acknowledged, there were difficulties for the children in having gender removed as a legitimate source of identity, yet having to live in a culture that remains highly gendered. Both children also noted the difficulty of accepting elements or desires in themselves that were conventionally gendered (for example, to enjoy typically masculine interactions or take pride in being a ‘manly man’ in the case of Jeremy, or to want to be a pretty girl, in the case of Emily). The children ended up pursuing stereotypical interests – Jeremy mathematics and Emily the arts.

5
(Bem, 1983), p. 613.

6
(Rhode, 1997), p. 19.

7
(David, Grace, & Ryan, 2004), p. 142, reference removed, referring to work done by Kay Bussey and David Perry.

8
(Fagot, 1985), see table 3, p. 1102.

9
(Fagot, 1985; Lamb, Easterbrooks, & Holden, 1980; Lamb & Roopnarine, 1979).

10
(Serbin et al., 1979).

11
(Bannerjee & Lintern, 2000).

12
Here I rely on the description of Woodward’s work provided in (Paechter, 2007). Unfortunately, I was unable to locate David Woodward’s thesis (D. Woodward, ‘Nursery class children’s formation of gender perspectives’, Unpublished MPhil thesis, Faculty of Education and Language Studies, Open University, 2003).

13
(Rudman & Glick, 2008), p. 178.

14
(Weitzman et al., 1972), p. 1141.

15
(Gooden & Gooden, 2001; Hamilton et al., 2006).

16
(Novell, 2004) and (Telford, 2003), p. 4.

17
(Rush & La Nauze, 2006).

18
(Turner-Bowker, 1996).

19
(Lamb & Brown, 2006), p. 158.

20
(Frawley, 2008). Quotation is from book blurb, see p. 294.

21
(Diekman & Murnen, 2004).

22
(Evans & Davies, 2000).

23
(Anderson & Hamilton, 2005), p. 149.

24
(Aubrey & Harrison, 2004; Barner, 1999; Leaper et al., 2002; Thompson & Zerbinos, 1995).

25
(Lamb & Brown, 2006), see pp. 64 and 65.

26
(Pike & Jennings, 2005) – 40 percent versus 76.9 percent. The same effect was not found for Harry Potter Lego, although this may have been because many more children had seen the original version of this ad.

27
(Weitzman et al., 1972), p. 1129.

28
(Lamb & Brown, 2006), see pp. 159 and 160. An exception, I think, is Gertrude McFuzz, but as Lamb and Brown note, this girl bird is ‘fancy, vain, and jealous’ (p. 160) – and she also, in the end, has to be rescued by a male character.

29
(Hamilton et al., 2006). (Tepper & Cassidy, 1999) found that females were underrepresented in titles, pictures, and central roles, but contrary to prediction found no differences in emotional language used by male and female characters. (Turner-Bowker, 1996) analysed thirty Caldecott winners and runners up from 1984–1994 and found underrepresentation of females in titles and pictures, although not central roles.

30
(DeLoache, Cassidy, & Carpenter, 1987).

31
(Black et al., 2009; Davis, 2003; Drees & Phye, 2001; Furnham, Abramsky, & Gunter, 1997; Sheldon, 2004).

32
(Götz, 2008).

33
(Smith & Cook, 2008). Both the TV and movie surveys also found that characters were predominantly Caucasian.

34
http://www.thegeenadavisinstitute.org/about_us.php
, accessed on October 5, 2009.

35
See brief review in (Miller, Trautner, & Ruble, 2006).

36
(Rudman & Glick, 2008), p. 82.

37
(Fagot, Leinbach, & O’Boyle, 1992), p. 229, referring to work reported in (Leinbach, Hort, & Fagot, 1997).

38
(Leinbach, Hort, & Fagot, 1993).

39
Unpublished work cited in (David, Grace, & Ryan, 2004). Information on the age of the children in the study was provided by the first author (Barbara David, personal communication, June 25, 2009).

1
(Walker, 2008).

2
(Ruble, Lurye, & Zosuls, 2008), p. 2.

3
(Miller et al., 2009). Appearance was the most commonly used type of stereotype for girls among preschoolers, first, and fourth/fifth graders, although not kindergartners.

4
See summary in (Tajfel & Turner, 1986).

5
(Patterson & Bigler, 2006). See also (Bigler & Liben, 2007).

6
A point made by (Arthur et al., 2008) and (Bem, 1983), for example.

7
A point made by (Rudman & Glick, 2008), p. 73. Interestingly, when children are encouraged to categorise by age (that is, kids versus adults) rather than gender, the adjectives they used to describe boys and girls change (Sani et al., 2003).

8
(Ruble, Lurye, & Zosuls, 2008).

9
(Rudman & Glick, 2008), p. 60, referring to research conducted by (Leinbach, Hort, & Fagot, 1993).

10
Barbara Hort, personal communication, September 17, 2009.

11
Developmental psychologists have pointed out that there are often methodological difficulties with studies that fail to find a relationship between gender knowledge and gender preferences. See (Martin, Ruble, & Szkrybalo, 2002; Miller, Trautner, & Ruble, 2006).

12
(Zosuls et al., 2009).

13
See (Miller, Trautner, & Ruble, 2006), pp. 315 and 316.

14
(Bradbard & Endsley, 1983; Bradbard et al., 1986; Martin, Eisenbud, & Rose, 1995; Masters et al., 1979; Thompson, 1975).

15
(Green, Bigler, & Catherwood, 2004).

16
(Kane, 2006b).

17
(Trautner et al., 2005).

18
This is a joke, rather than a scientific fact.

1
This event is described by (Morantz-Sanchez, 1985), pp. 306 and 307. Morantz-Sanchez points out that ‘[i]ronically, women physicians were saying much the same thing as Richard Cabot in their public pronouncements.’ (p. 307).

2
(Baruch, 1915), quotations from paras. 3 and 4, then paras. 7 and 8, respectively.

3
(Dana, 1915), para. 9.

4
Reported in (Nowlan, 2006), para. 9.

5
Quoted in (Morantz-Sanchez, 1985), p. 306.

6
(Dana, 1915), para. 10.

7
(Gould, 1981), pp. 28 and 29.

8
For example (Kay et al., 2004; Lockwood & Kunda, 1997; Shah, 2003; Welnsteln, Przybylskl, & Ryan, 2009).

9
(Kimmel, 2008), p. 4.

10
(Sapolsky, 1997), para. 6.

11
(Kaiser et al., 2009), p. 9, citing the insight of (Fausto-Sterling, 2000). For evidence relating to neuroplasticity, see (Draganski et al., 2004; Maguire et al., 2000).

12
(Kaplan & Rogers, 2003), p. 74.

13
(Fausto-Sterling, 2000), p. 5.

14
For example (Krendl et al., 2008; Wraga et al., 2006). Also (Hausmann et al., 2009) who found that circulating testosterone levels were higher in men who performed cognitive tasks after gender-stereotype priming, compared with controls.

15
(Schweder & Sullivan, 1993), p. 498.

16
(Kimmel, 2008), p. 341.

17
(Bleier, 1986), p. 148.

18
(Kaplan & Rogers, 2003), p. 231.

19
(Davies, 1989), p. x.

20
(Senior, 2009).

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