Femininity (34 page)

Anthropological obsession with beards: See John Hurrell Crook, “Sexual Selection,
Dimorphism, and Social Organization in the Primates” in Bernard Campbell, ed.,
Sexual Selection and the Descent of Man,
Chicago: Aldine, 1972.

Schaller on lions: George B. Schaller, “Life With the King of the Beasts,”
National Geographic,
April 1969;—,
The Serengeti Lion: A Study of Predator-Prey Relations,
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1972.

Tanner’s theory of sexual hair as a handy clutch for an infant: James M. Tanner, M.D.,
“Growth and Endocrinology of the Adolescent” in Lytt I. Gardner, ed.,
Endocrine and Genetic Diseases of Childhood,
Philadelphia and London: W.B. Saunders, 1969.

Darwin’s views on hairlessness and sexual selection are discussed in Crook,
op. cit.
The modern elaboration of this theory is in Desmond Morris,
The Naked Ape,
New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967.

Ovid’s “rude goat” image is from
Ars Amatoria.

Lombroso’s theories: Cesare Lombroso and William Ferrero,
The Female Offender,
trans, from the Italian, New York: D. Appleton, 1897. For a discussion of Lombroso,
see Ann Jones,
Women Who Kill,
New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1980.

Evolution of the swimsuit: Claudia B. Kidwell, Women’s
Bathing and Swimming Costume in the United States
(United States National Museum Bulletin 250), Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution
Press, 1968; Christina Probert,
Swimwear in Vogue Since
1910, New York: Abbeville Press, 1981.

Popularity of chorus-girl movies in the Twenties: Marjorie Rosen,
Popcorn Venus,
New York: Coward, McCann & Geoghegan, 1973.

Evolution of stockings from opaque to sheer: Milton N. Grass,
History of Hosiery,
New York: Fairchild Publications, 1955; Ira J. Haskell,
Hosiery Thru the Years,
Lynn, Mass. (mimeo), 1956, at the New York Public Library.

Ads for Zip and Neet appeared in the back pages of
The Delineator
during 1923 and 1924.

Shelley Winters tells her strapless-gown story in Shelley Winters,
Shelley, Also Known as Shirley,
New York: Morrow, 1980.

Eccrine and apocrine sweat glands: R.H. Champion, “Sweat Glands” in Champion
et at., An Introduction to the Biology of the Skin,
Philadelphia: F.A. Davis, 1970; Harry J. Hurley, Jr., M.D., “Apocrine Glands” in
Fitzpatrick,
Dermatology, op. cit.;
Dorothy V. Harris, “Conditioning for Stress in Sports” in Dorothy V. Harris, ed.,
DGWS
Research Reports: Women in Sports,
Vol. II, Washington, D.C.: American Association for Health, Physical Education and
Recreation, 1973.

Anne Hollander’s observations on pubic hair in art may be found in Anne Hollander,
Seeing Through Clothes,
New York: Viking Press, 1978.

Compilation of euphemisms for pubic hair is from Wendy Cooper,
Hair, op. cit.
(Venus plats can be found in a translation of
Lysistrata;
sweet bottom-grass is in
Venus and Adonis.)

Among the Christian exhortations against cosmetics are Tertullian,
On the Apparel of Women
(A.D. 202); Philip Stubbes,
Anatomy of Abuses
(1583); and William Prynne,
Histrio-Mastix
(1633).

Speer’s comments on cosmetics production in Nazi Germany and his observations on Goering
are in Albert Speer,
Inside the Third Reich,
New York: Macmillan, 1970.

Effect of estrogen on thinning the skin during the aging process: A. Jarrett,
The Physiology and Pathophysiology of the Skin,
Vol. I, London and New York: Academic Press, 1973; Author’s interview with Norman
Orentreich, M.D., March 1981.

The Story of Athene and her flute is in Robert Graves,
The Creek Myths,
Vol. 1, Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books, 1960, and in H.J. Rose, A
Handbook of Greek Mythology,
New York: Dutton, 1959.

Huck dresses as a woman in Chapters 10 and 11 of Mark Twain,
The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn
(1884).

Tricks of female impersonation: Esther Newton,
Mother Camp: Female Impersonators in America,
Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1972; Peter Underwood,
Life’s a Drag!,
London: Leslie Frewin, 1974.

Surgical and cosmetic changes: Richard Green and John Money, eds.,
Transsexualism and Sex Reassignment,
Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1975. Observations of James Morris are
in Jan Morris,
Conundrum,
London: Faber and Faber, 1974.

Anatomical differences affecting strength and movement: Jack Wilmore, “The Female
Athlete,”
Journal of School Health,
April 1977; Jack H. Wilmore, “Alterations in Strength, Body Composition and Anthropometric
Measurements Consequent to a 10-Week Weight Training Program,”
Medicine and Science in Sports
(Vol. 6, No. 2) Summer 1974;—, “Body Composition and Strength Development,”
Journal
o
f Physical Education and Recreation,
Jan. 1975; James McIlwain, “Physiological Considerations for Training Female Track
and Field Athletes,”
Athletic Journal
(Vol. 58, No. 7) March 1978.

Uterine musculature, differences in pelvic shape, angle of the sockets: J.M. Tanner,
Growth at Adolescence,
Oxford: Blackwell, 1973; Author’s interview with William G. Hamilton, M.D., Feb.
9, 1981.

Limberness and flexibility: Janice Kaplan,
Women and Sports,
New York: Viking, 1979; H. Harrison Clarke, ed., “Joint and Body Range of Movement,”
Physical Fitness Research Digest
(Series 5, No. 4), Oct. 1975, published by The President’s Council on Physical Fitness
and Sports; H. Harrison Clarke, ed., “Physical and Motor Sex Differences,”
Physical Fitness Research Digest
(Series 9, No. 4), Oct. 1979, published by The President’s Council on Physical Fitness
and Sports; John L. Marshall
et al.,
“Joint Looseness: A Function of the Person and the Joint,”
Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise
(Vol. 12, No. 3), 1980.

Finger dexterity reported in Eleanor Emmons Maccoby and Carol Nagy Jacklin,
The Psychology of Sex Differences,
Stanford University Press, 1974.

Theory of erotic appeal in long fingernails is in David Kunzle,
Fashion and Fetishism,
Totowa, N.J.: Rowman and Littlefield, 1982.

Personal accounts of nail-growing appear in Shirley MacLaine,
You Can Get There From Here,
New York: Norton, 1975; Helen Gurley Brown,
Having It All,
New York: Linden/Simon and Schuster, 1982.

Suzy Parker and Revlon: Andrew Tobias,
Fire and Ice,
New York: Morrow, 1976.

Tripp’s explanation of swish: C.A. Tripp,
The Homosexual Matrix,
New York: McGraw-Hill, 1975.

Small, light frames of winning gymnasts: Patricia C. Morris and Carol S. Underwood,
“The Woman Athlete: Structurally Speaking” in Dorothy V. Harris, ed., DGWS
Research Reports: Women in Sports,
Vol. II, Washington, D.C.: American Association for Health, Physical Education and
Recreation; Harold B. Falls and L. Dennis Humphrey, “Body Type and Composition Differences
between Placers and Non-placers in an AIAW Gymnastics Meet,”
Research Quarterly
(Vol. 49, No. 1), March 1978.

Schiller’s definition of masculine and feminine beauty may be found in Friedrich Schiller,
Essays Aesthetical and Philosophical,
translated from the German, London: George Bell & Sons, 1875. See especially “On
Grace and Beauty.”

Ballet conventions: Jennifer Dunning, “Partnering as an Art,”
The New York Times,
Feb. 6, 1981; Lee Edward Stern, “Feet—the Fragile Pedestal of Ballet,”
The New York Times,
July 20, 1980; John and Roberta Lazzarini,
Pavlova,
New York: Schirmer, 1981; Author’s interview with William G. Hamilton, M.D., Feb.
9, 1981.

Susan B. Anthony’s shoe size and the newspaper comments are reported in Ida Husted
Harper,
The Life and Work of Susan B. Anthony,
Indianapolis: The Hollenbeck Press, 1899.

Medical problems of high heels: Jane Brody, “Personal Health,”
The New York Times,
Feb. 14, 1979.

Rudofsky on the impractical shoe: Bernard Rudofsky,
The Kimono Mind,
New York: Doubleday, 1965; see also Bernard Rudofsky, Are
Clothes Modern?,
Chicago: Paul Theobald, 1947.

Isaiah on footgear: Isaiah 3.

Colette’s sandals and toenail polish: Robert Phelps,
Belles Saisons,
New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1978.

Samurai history and Japanese etiquette from Rudofsky,
The Kimono Mind, op. cit.
See also Ruth Benedict,
The Chrysanthemum and the Sword
(1946), New York: New American Library, 1974.

Sidesaddle: Charles Chenevix Trench, A
History of Horsemanship,
New York: Doubleday, 1970; Lida Fleitmann Bloodgood,
The Saddle of Queens,
London: J.A. Allen, 1959.

The pathological uterus: Barbara Ehrenreich and Deirdre English, For
Her Own Good:
150
Years of the Experts’ Advice to Women,
New York: Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1978.

Range of cheetahs: George W. and Lory Herbison Frame, “Cheetahs: In a Race for Survival,”
National Geographic,
May 1980.

Open-field behavior of rats: Jeffrey A. Gray
et al.,
“Gonadal Hormone Injections in Infancy and Adult Emotional Behaviour,”
Animal Behaviour,
Vol. 13, No. 1, Jan. 1965.

Menstruation: Janice Delaney, Mary Jane Lupton and Emily Toth,
The Curse: A Cultural History of Menstruation,
New York: Dutton, 1976; Paula Weideger,
Menstruation and Menopause,
New York: Knopf, 1976. Beauvoir’s observations are in Simone de Beauvoir,
The Second Sex
(1949), trans, from the French by H.M. Parshley, New York: Knopf, 1953. Cramps on
the tennis circuit: Grace Lichtenstein,
A Long Way,
Baby: Behind the Scenes in Women’s Pro Tennis,
New York: Morrow, 1974.

Sports and the feminine ideal: Sue Tyler, “Adolescent Crisis: Sport Participation
for the Female” in Dorothy V. Harris, ed., DGWS Research
Reports: Women in Sports,
Vol. II, American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 1973;
Jack H. Wilmore and C. Harmon Brown, “Physiological Profiles of Women Distance Runners,”
Medicine and Science in Sports
(Vol. 6, No. 3), Fall 1974; Dorothy V. Harris, “Research Studies on the Female Athlete:
Psychosocial Considerations,”
Journal of Physical Education and Recreation,
Jan. 1975; P. S. Wood, “Sex Differences in Sports,”
The New York Times Magazine,
May 18, 1980; Nadine Brozan, “Training Linked to Disruption of Female Reproductive
Cycle,”
The New York Times,
April 17, 1978; Neil Amdur, “Seven Women Athletes Banned for Drugs,”
The New York Times,
October 26, 1979—, “The Drug Game Threatens International Amateur Sport,”
The New York Times,
Nov. 4, 1979—, “Women Facing More Than an Athletic Struggle,”
The New York Times,
Dec. 21, 1980; Dick Lacey, “Women Athletes Help to Educate a Male Coach,”
The New York Times,
Dec. 18, 1977.

Mehrabian’s studies are reported in Nancy M. Henley, Body
Politics: Power, Sex, and Nonverbal Communication,
Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1977.

Rowell on primate dominance: Thelma E. Rowell, “The Concept of Social Dominance,”
Behavioral Biology,
II, 1974.

Deportment in the Middle Ages: G. G. Coulton,
Medieval Panorama,
New York: Macmillan, 1946.

American public decency regulations before World War I: Geoffrey Perrett,
America in the Twenties,
New York: Simon and Schuster, 1982.

Guillaumin’s theory: Colette Guillaumin, “The Question of Difference,”
Feminist Issues
(Vol. 2, No. 1
),
Spring 1982. See also Colette Guillaumin, “The Appropriation of Women,”
Feminist Issues
(Vol. 1, No. 2), Winter 1981.

Nancy Henley’s analysis of masculine and feminine movement in
Body Politics, op. cit.,
is the classic in the field.

Testosterone and aggression: K.E. Moyer, “A Preliminary Physiological Model of Aggressive
Behavior” and F.H. Bronson and C. Desjardins, “Steroid Hormones and Aggressive Behavior
in Mammals” in Eleftheriou and Scott, eds.,
The Physiology of Aggression and Defeat,
New York: Plenum Press, 1971; Arthur Kling, M.D., “Testosterone and Aggressive Behavior
in Man and Non-Human Primates” in Eleftheriou and Sprott, eds.,
Hormonal Correlates of Behavior,
Vol. 1, New York: Plenum Press, 1975; Rod Plotnik, “Brain Stimulation and Aggression:
Monkeys, Apes, and Humans” in Ralph L. Holloway, ed.,
Primate Aggression, Territoriality, and Xenophobia,
New York: Academic Press, 1974 (Plotnik is the researcher I quote); Robert M. Rose
et al.,
“Androgens and Aggression: A Review and Recent Findings in Primates” in Holloway,
Primate Aggression, op. cit.;
David M. Hamburg, “Psychobiological Studies of Aggressive
Behaviour,”
Nature,
Vol. 230, March 5, 1971; Laurel Holliday,
The Violent Sex,
Guerneville, Cal.: Bluestocking Books, 1978.

Comparative testosterone levels in males and females: Figures vary from study to study,
as do the testosterone levels themselves, especially in males. Metabolic conversions
from one hormone to another also take place. The average difference of ten to one
for males and females is reported in W.R. Butt
et al., Hormone Chemistry,
Vol. 2, New York: John Wiley, 1976. This correlates with the production rates cited
in Goodman and Gilman,
The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics,
New York: Macmillan, 1975.

Broverman and Broverman
:
INGE K. Broverman, Donald M. Broverman et al., “Sex-Role Stereotypes and Clinical
Judgments of Mental Health,” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology (Vol. 34,
No. i), 1970. See also Jacob Orlofsky, “Relationship Between Sex Role Attitudes and
Personality Traits and the Sex Role Behavior Scale-1: A New Measure of Masculine and
Feminine Role Behaviors and Interests,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
(Vol. 40, No. 5), 1981.