Hinduism: A Short History (30 page)

The
Śiva-sahasra-nāma
, though not necessarily part of the Dakṣa story, uses many epithets and attributes of Śiva, which make him appear as the great Savior. All his salvific deeds are mentioned; he is identified with the Sun; he is the artificer of the universe; he is in all things; he is master and lord of all creatures. He gives boons; he destroys and creates again; he smites and heals. But even here, on an occasion when the auspicious character of Śiva has to be proven, his fierce and frightful character still predominates in this litany, which largely repeats the Śatarudriya. He is still worshiped as thousand-eyed, three-eyed, Bhava, Śarva, and Rudra; he is the wielder of the trident; he is red and tawny and has a blue throat; he is white and stainless; he is the embodiment of all kinds of destruction; he is armed with bones and fond of cremation grounds; his bell and his
akṣa-mālā
are mentioned; he is fond of the heart-flesh of all creatures; he is called a tiger and a snake; he is the one who cuts down and pierces and smites; he is time, that is inauspicious. “You are the killing, the instrument to kill and that which is killed.”
⁵⁰
Some of the attributes may refer to the habit of Śiva worshipers and their apparel. Śiva is not a pleasant god; whatever is frightful, dangerous, odd, destructive is identified with him.

The very fact that the
Śiva-sahasra-nāma
refers to all the other deeds of Śiva, while the Dakṣa story, according to the testimony of the text, is the oldest and first of diva’s exploits, make it appear a later addition.

For later Śaivism, the myth of Śiva drinking the poison which appeared after the churning of the ocean is perhaps the most important one. In it Śaivas see the clearest image of Śiva the savior – Śiva’s blue throat is a permanent reminiscence of the deed by which he saved humankind from perishing through poison.
⁵¹

The oldest version seems to be preserved in the
Rāmāyaṇa
⁵²
– not only as a passing reference, but as a full-fledged story. Dānavas and Daityas are engaged in churning the ocean to obtain
amṛta
. The snake, which they use as a rope, emits poison, which like a consuming fire, engulfs everything. The frightened gods approach Śaṅkara and ask him to save them. Viṣṇu appears, telling Śiva that the first product of the churning should be Śiva’s, whom he calls
sura-śreṣṭha
(the first god) and
surāṇām-agrata
(at the head of all gods). Thus he should accept the “first offering.” Śiva then drinks the poison,
halāhala
, and thus saves gods and humans. The next difficulty in the process of churning the ocean is solved by Viṣṇu, and it is again Viṣṇu who distributes
amṛta
, for whose sake
devas
and
daityas
had worked.

The account in the
Mahābhārata
differs in many details.
⁵³
From the very beginning the Tortoise-king (not Viṣṇu) serves as a basis for the mountain Mandara; many products are churned out from the ocean before the poison, here called Kālakūṭa, appears. “Engulfing the earth it suddenly blazed up like a fire attended with fumes. And by the scent of that frightful Kālakūṭa the three worlds were stupefied. And then Śiva, being solicited by Brahman, swallowed that poison for the safety of the creation. The divine Maheśvara held it in his throat, and it is said that from that time he is called Nīlakaṇṭha.”

The Vaiṣṇava scriptures also recount the story of the churning of the milk ocean: characteristically the
Viṣṇu Purāṇa
⁵⁴
tells us that one of the products that came out from the ocean – neither the first nor the last -was poison. Śiva is not even mentioned; snakes consume it, thus explaining the existence of venomous snakes. The
Bhāgavata Purāṇa
gives the most detailed account of the myth, apparently combining the various traditions that must have been known to the author: Viṣṇu in the form of a tortoise forms the support of Mandara, after the first attempt at churning has failed,
⁵⁵
and personally takes part in the churning. The first product of the churning is the poison Halahala, issuing, however, not from the mouth of the snake, but from the sea. It spreads over the whole earth and threatens to consume all beings. The gods flee to Sadāśiva and ask him for protection. Prajāpati addresses Śiva in a long hymn, “O god of gods, supreme deity, the protector and the self of created beings, save us that have sought refuge in you from this poison, which is burning the three worlds. You are the one Lord able to bind and to free the world.”A good deal of Śaiva philosophy is woven into this hymn. Śiva, “the friend of all living beings” first consults with Satī, his spouse, before he undertakes anything. In this address to Satī the author of the
Bhāgavata Purāṇa
subtly asserts his Vaiṣṇavism: Śiva remarks that Hari is pleased with a man who sacrifices his life for others – “the universe’s soul” – and that he, Śiva, is also happy, when Hari is pleased. It looks as if Śiva was prepared to die for the sake of the mortals. Satī gives her permission and Śiva, “squeezing into his palm the Halahala, which was spreading all round, swallowed it out of compassion. The poison showed its power even on his person: it made him blue at the throat, but this spot became a special ornament to that benevolent soul.” This act pleases Viṣṇu; the act of Śiva constituted the highest worship of Viṣṇu, declares the author of the
Bhāgavatam
. “Scorpions, snakes and poisonous herbs as well as what other biting creatures there were, took in what little poison leaked from the palm of Lord Śiva while he drank it.”

Certainly there had been various traditions: in one the poison is the first product of the churning, in others the last. In one, Śiva is coaxed into taking it by Viṣṇu, in others he takes it freely out of compassion. The Śaivite version, however, makes it clear that the importance of this myth lies in establishing Śiva as the Savior of the whole world; the very name Nīlakaṇṭha denotes Śiva as savior. Modern Śaivites even use the expression of Śiva’s “vicarious suffering” in this connection.

Another very popular and important Śiva myth is the legend of Śiva destroying Tripura. It is alluded to as well known in the
Rāmāyaṇa
in several places, but the legend itself is not narrated. The oldest complete version seems to be that in the
Mahābhārata.
⁵⁶
The whole scene is reminiscent of a Vedic setting: Śiva plays the role of Indra as the liberator of gods and men from demons. That, in fact, is the scene’s main purpose, to show that Śiva saves gods and men from the wicked and powerful
asuras
. The background of the myth is provided by one of the numerous fights between
devas
and
asuras
. Three of the
asuras
practice
tapas
and approach Brahmā for the “boon of immortality from death at the hands of all the creatures of all time.” They are told that this is impossible to obtain. Thus they choose to “reside in three cities over this earth. After a thousand years we will come together and our three cities also will be united into one. That foremost one amongst the gods who will with one shaft pierce these three cities united into one will be the cause of our destruction.” Māyā, the divine artificer, constructs three cities for the
asuras:
one of gold, one of silver, one of black iron, all of enormous proportions and wonderfully equipped, with everything conceivable obtainable in them. The Dānavas from their aerial fortresses terrorize the whole earth, gods and men alike. The denizens of earth and heaven complain to Brahmā, who tells them that “those three cities are to be pierced with one shaft; by no other means can their destruction be effected. None else save Sthaṇu is competent to pierce them with one shaft. You
adityas
, select Sthāṇu, otherwise called Iśāna and Jiṣṇu, who is never fatigued with work, as your warrior. It is he who will destroy those
asuras:’
There follows a very interesting description of a vision of Śiva: “the dispeller of fear in all situations of fear, the universal soul, the supreme soul.” In the hymn which the gods address to Śiva they remember his previous mighty deeds – the destruction of Prajāpati Dakṣa’s sacrifice, his blue throat, his mighty weapon, his fierceness, his three eyes. They call him Lord of trees, of men, of animals, “Death’s self,” the destroyer. Brahmā, by asking Śiva to destroy the
asuras
, emphasizes the role of Śiva as saviour of gods and men: “Slay the Dānavas, O wielder of the trident; let the universe, through thy grace, obtain happiness. Lord of all the world, you are the one whose shelter should be sought. We all seek thy shelter.” Śiva first offers half of his own energy to the
devas
to defeat the Dānavas – but the
devas
cannot bear it. Thus Śiva takes away half of the energy of the
devas
in order to kill the Dānavas all by himself. “From that time Śaṅkara came to be called Mahādeva.”
⁵⁷
The
devas
have a car constructed, a bow and a shaft fashioned. All the parts of the universe are used for it. Śiva’s charioteer is Brahmā: Viṣṇu, Soma, and Agni form his arrow. The roar of Śiva’s bull frightens the worlds. “The Sthaṇu armed with trident became deprived of his senses in wrath.” The car appears to be sinking into the ground. Nārāyaṇa, in the form of a bull, issues out from the point of the shaft and pulls the car out. Śiva is described as standing on the head of the bull and on the back of the horses.
⁵⁸
Finally Śarva strings his bow and when Tripura appears before him in the sky he pierces it with a single shot. “Thus was the triple city burnt and thus were the Dānavas exterminated by Maheśvara in wrath, from desire of doing good to the three worlds. After this the gods, the
ṛṣis
and the three worlds became all restored to their natural disposition.”
⁵⁹

Śiva as the destroyer of hostile demons is the topic of the many minor myths that, with many variations, are retold in most of the
Purāṇas
and alluded to as well known in the Epics. One of the titles given to Śiva in invocations is Andhaka-ripu (enemy of Andhaka) and the
Rāmāyaṇa
uses the episode as a term of comparison in another fight between Rama and Khara.

The
Śiva Purāṇa
, however, narrates the story of the fight between Śiva and Andhaka at great length.
⁶⁰
Andhaka, an
asura
, son of Hiraṇyākṣa, asks for immortality from Brahmā, after having performed austerities; he obtains the boon of immunity from danger from all classes of beings which he mentions. Andhaka roams about the world and sees Śiva in a cave, clad like an ascetic. He arouses the anger of Śiva’s company and a battle ensues. Only Śiva can decide the outcome: he kills Andhaka with Hs
triśula
(tndent).
⁶¹

A similar legend is connected with the name of Śaṅkhacīḍa.
⁶²
Śiva, with Viṣṇu’s blessings, had given to Dambhi, at his urging, a son Śaṅkhacīḍa, who became the king of the
asuras
, fought against the
devas
, and was killed by Śiva himself. Parallel stories are connected with the names of Dundubhi, Vidala, Utpala, etc. The
Śiva Purāṇa
abounds in tales recounting the fights of Śiva with numerous demons and Śiva’s victory over them. It seems that this “killing of demons” was considered one of the most important functions of a savior-god: the Śaiva Purāṇas never admit that any demon could be killed by anyone other than Śiva, and similarly the Vaiṣṇava Purāṇas do not narrate a single story in which Śiva could slay a demon without Viṣṇu intervening at the decisive moment.

One rather delightful example of such sectarian bias is offered in a story told by the
Bhāgavata Purāṇa:
⁶³
Vrka, an evil demon, enquired which of the gods “was quick to propitiate.” Nārada tells him: “Go to Śiva. He is soon pleased with a small measure of merit and gets angry equally quickly through a slight offence.” He tells him that Śiva granted boons to Ravana and to Bana, who afterwards caused him serious trouble. Vṛka begins his austerities and promptly wins the appearance of Śiva, who tells him to ask for any boon. Vṛka asks for the gift, that on whomsoever he would place his hand, that person should die. Śiva laughingly grants it. Now Vṛka tries to exercise his boon on Pārvatī, even on Śiva himself. Śiva is helpless: he cannot revoke the boon and is fleeing from the demon and from his own boon conferred on him. Śiva has no other resort left but Vaikuṇṭha. Viṣṇu now saves the situation. He tells the
asura
to try Śiva’s boon out on his own head – calling Śiva the “ruler of Pretas and Pisacas” and a liar – and Vṛka promptly dies.

Śaivas in turn also invented or reshaped stories to show the dependence of Viṣṇu on Śiva when a demon had to be killed. Thus Śiva is depicted as giving the sudarśanacakra to Viṣṇu and it is through Śiva’s grace that Kṛṣṇa is able to defeat his enemies.

One of the central themes in Śaiva Purāṇas is Śiva’s burning of Kāmadeva, who tries to disturb him in his meditations.
⁶⁴
In some sources Pārvatī is said to have instigated Kāma to distract Śiva and to marry her. Śiva’s first reaction is wrath, and he burns Kāmadeva to ashes. At the wailing of all creatures he restores him to life.

The marriage of Śiva and Pārvatī is usually dealt with at great length in the Śaiva Purāṇas: later philosophy sees in the union of Śiva and Śakti the cause of all activity in the universe, the cause also of all salvation. In fact, Śiva is active as saviour only after his marriage to Pārvatī, and he does his salvific deeds either together with Pārvatī or with her permission.

Finally, among the episodes in which Śiva appears as destroyer of his enemies, there is the death of Yama (the god of death) himself at the hands of Śiva. Śiva is Mṛtyuñjaya; he is the giver of
mokṣa
in this form, when meditated upon. The
mantra
that overcomes death describes Śiva as the overlord of death.