Hinduism: A Short History (29 page)

The oldest Upaniṣads do no more than mention Rudra and Rudriyas in the catalogues of gods and their offices. The first and the most important of
Śaiva Upaniṣads
, in which Śiva is identified with Brahman, is the
Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad.
⁴⁰
It refutes at length many other schools and systems – a sign that it cannot be very early, since it presupposes the formation of definite tenets of different groups. The Supreme Being in the
Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad
is Śiva. The way of salvation which it teaches is Yoga in its practical aspect, and Vedānta in its theoretical aspect. “The immortal and imperishable Hara exercises complete control over the perishable
prakṛti
and the powerless
jīva:
this radiant Hara is one alone.”

The way to perfect knowledge is
dhyāna
. The doctrine of
māyā
is intimately connected with Śaivism. Śiva Paramātman is compared to a “fisherman with a net, the arch-juggler that brings to bear the
iśānis
or illusory powers begotten of his
māyā.”
His
māyā
is also the means by which he directs the world. To those who realize the truth, that Rudra is the one absolute being, it promises immortality or
videha-kaivalya
. A close parallel to the Viṣṇu-viśva-rūpa is offered by the following passage: “Rudra, the Paramātman, assumes the form of the Virāḍātman, possessed of the eyes of all beings, as his own eyes, the faces of all beings of the universe as his own face ...” Salvation according to the
Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad
depends on Śiva’s grace: in a prayer Śiva is asked to manifest to all seekers his pure form. His forms are only his
māyā
– in reality he is formless.
⁴¹
Only the realization of Śiva’s formlessness brings bliss and immortality. Śiva manifests himself variously: as
viśva-rūpa
, as
liṅga-śarīra
in the hearts of all beings, as omnipresent on account of his all-pervasiveness, as
antarātman
of the “size of a thumb” (about an inch in height). Śaivites interpret the Puruṣasūkta in a Śaivite sense; Śiva is called the immanent being in all beings. One who perceives through direct intuition the Antarātman-Śiva becomes free from all sorrows. All beings are
īśvara
and the perception of difference between
jīva
and
Iśa
is an illusion. “Know then that
prakṛti
is
māyā
and that the great God is the Lord of
māyā
. The whole world is filled with beings who form his parts.”

Realization of Śiva brings about peace of soul: “One attains infinite peace on realizing that self-effulgent, adorable Lord, the bestower of blessings who, though one, presides over all the various aspects of
prakṛti
and in whom this universe dissolves, and in whom it appears in manifold forms.”

The three elements of later Śaiva systems seem to be quite clearly visible: Śiva, though immanent in all beings, is the Lord of both
puruṣa
and
prakṛti
and not identical with either of them.
⁴²
“He is the controller of Matter and Spirit and the Lord of the
guṇas
. He is the cause of liberation from the cycle of birth and death and of bondage which results in its continuance.” The Upaniṣad also quotes from
Ṛgveda
to underline the continuance of the Vedic Rudra-Śiva: the basic belief is still that “normally” Rudra acts as destroyer, deluder, deceiver. He has to be appeased to be favorable, to undo his own work of death and deceit.

Another important text in the same class is the
Atharvaśira Upaniṣad?
⁴³
it is younger than the
Svetāśvatara
. It explains the various names and epithets of Śiva. As a means to release, the Upaniṣad recommends the Mahāpaśupata
vrata
“through which alone could be successfully accomplished the
kaivalya
by the
paśus
, bound by the
pāśa
of the deluded belief in the real existence of things apart from
ātman
, through the attainment of the knowledge of the identity of the
paśu
with
pati
and the consequent vanishing of the
pāśa.”
The ritual practice of this
vrata
consists of besmearing one’s body with ashes.

Other Śaiva Upaniṣads, like
Bṛhajjābāla Upaniṣad, Bhāsmajābāla Upaniṣad
etc., deal with sectarian practices: besmearing one’s body with ashes, wearing
Rudm-mālā
, applying the
tripuṇḍra
to one’s forehead,
⁴⁴
practicing
japa
, and so forth.

Some motifs found in the Vedic literature emerge as fully developed myths in Epics and Purāṇas. Besides these, many new ones appear, whose origin and roots we are unable to trace: some may have been folk-tales, some may have been invented for a particular purpose, some are clearly etiological myths.

The oldest version of epic and purāṇic Śiva myths is probably found in the
Rāmāyaṇa
, where Śiva is called Śitikaṇṭha, Mahādeva, Rudra, Trayāṃbaka, Paśupati, and Śaṅkara. We find in it the narration of Dakṣa’s sacrifice in its simplest form,
⁴⁵
later it is expanded almost into an epic by itself; the marriage of Śiva with Umā; Śiva drinking the poison; Śiva destroying Andhaka; Śiva conquering Tripura; Śiva cursing Kaṇḍarpa.

The
Mahābhārata
narrates Śiva myths at great length. Though the main figures of both epics are manifestations of Viṣṇu, the epics are rather liberal and allow ample space for Śaivite mythology and doctrine. Thus the
Anuśāña-parvan
narrates how Kṛṣṇa had been initiated by Śiva, remaining for his whole life a Śiva bhakta, the
Śanti-parvan
explains that Hari and Śiva are one and the same, the
Anuśāsana-parvan
enumerates among the thousand names %of Viṣṇu also Śiva, Śarva, Sthaṇu, Īśāna, and Rudra. But not in all its forms are Śiva and Viṣṇu mythology integrated in the
Mahābhārata;
there are certainly large sections of pure Śaiva mythology which were incorporated into the epic without trying to harmonize them with existing Viṣṇu myths. It is in the Purāṇas, however, that Śiva mythology reaches its fullest development. In the Purāṇas Śaivism is usually an exclusive religion in which the Supreme Being of other religions is placed lower than Śiva. The oldest among the Śaiva Purāṇas is probably the
Vāyu Purāṇa
(before the second century C.E.); practically identical with it is the (more recent)
Brahmāṇḍa Purāṇa
. The existing revised form of
Matsya Purāṇa
has been ascribed to the age of the Guptas (c.325 C.E.). The original
Kūrma Purāṇa
must also be very ancient: the existing revised form, however, is rather late (c.710 C.E.). Approximately from the same time are
Skanda Purāṇa
(c.700 C.E.) and
Śiva Purāṇa –
called by Śaivites today a
MahāPurāṇa
, but in most books referred to as one of the Upapurāṇas. The important
Liṅga Purāṇa
(c.600 to 1000 C.E.) and the
Vāmana Purāṇa
(revised c.900 C.E.) are the last among the Śaiva-Purāṇas. The main myths recur in all the Purāṇas -they differ only in the emphasis given to certain aspects.

The myth of Śiva interrupting Dakṣa’s sacrifice has always been considered the oldest among the Śiva myths.
⁴⁶
It is first mentioned in the
Taittirīya Saṃhitā
. The gods had excluded Rudra from a sacrifice: Rudra in anger pierced the sacrifice with an arrow. The
Rāmāyaṇa
briefly refers to it as a well-known episode. It is recounted several times in the
Mahābhārata
and the
Purāṇas
in various versions: in most of them the result is the acknowledgment of Śiva’s supremacy by Dakṣa, the anti-Śaivite. In the
Hari-vaṃśa
, however, the myth concludes with an intervention of Viṣṇu, who forces Śiva to submit to him.

The story of Śiva wrecking the sacrifice of Dakṣa and Śiva’s pardoning of Dakṣa after he has acknowledged the supremacy of Śiva is recounted at great length in the
Mahābhārata
and in several
Purāṇas
. The
Mahābhārata
narrates the story in two consecutive chapters. The first chapter begins by stating that the story is the explanation of the origin of fever (in connection with the Vṛtra story),
⁴⁷
and the second chapter begins with the statement that what follows is the story of Dakṣa’s sacrifice and how Śiva wrecked it. Both chapters narrate the same story.
⁴⁸
Since the
Vāyu Purāṇa
version contains the whole story in one continuous chapter and, it seems, in a more logical sequence than the
Mahābhārata
, and since it is the
Vāyu Purāṇa
that had been apparently the model for
Śiva-
and
Brahma Purāṇas
, we take this to be the basic, and probably oldest, version of the Dakṣa myth. The Śiva-sahasranāma, which succeeds both in Vāyu Purāṇa and in the Mahābhārata the narration of the episode, may or may not have been interpolated at a later date. There could have been a common source from which these four texts drew. If this is so, the
Vāyu
seems to have been nearest to it and preserved the most authentic version of the myth, since the
Mahābhārata
was certainly known to the authors of
Śiva-
and
Brahma Purāṇas
.

The story as
Vāyu Purāṇa
tells it runs like this. Dakṣa has prepared an
aśva-medha
and invites all the gods, except Śiva. His daughter Umā, who is Śiva’s wife, comes to Dakṣa pleading that he should also invite her husband; she feels wronged and dishonored, being the eldest and foremost of Dakṣa’s daughters.
⁴⁹
Dadhīca also remarks that he fears Dakṣa’s sacrifice will have a bad end if Śiva is not invited. Dakṣa retorts that this sacrifice is prepared for Viṣṇu. He does not know of any Rudra other than the eleven Rudras. Viṣṇu is the master of all; to him should sacrifices be offered. Umā is sad and asks her husband why he is not going to his father’s sacrifice, while all the other gods are going there. Śiva himself explains that the gods in ancient times decided that Rudra should not have any part in the sacrifice. Umā is silent, reflecting how to obtain for her husband a share – a half or a third – of the sacrifice. Śiva then decides to create a “Terrible Being” that will destroy Dakṣa’s sacrifice. There follows a description of this embodiment of Śiva’s wrath and of a host of evil and ugly beings that accompany it. They descend upon Dakṣa’s sacrifice, scatter everything, drive the gods away, and kill the sacrifice which had assumed the form of a deer. Brahmā, together with the gods and Dakṣa, fold their hands and question the “Terrible Being” about its nature. Vīrabhadra explains his nature and his mission and tells them that they should take refuge with Umā’s husband, whose wrath is more propitious even than the boons of other gods. As soon as he hears it, Dakṣa begins praising Śiva. Śiva, pacified, accepts Dakṣa, and grants to him that the sacrifice, though spoilt, be of benefit to him, having spent so much time and pains on it.

The grateful Dakṣa then praises Śiva in a thousand and eight names. At the end he points out that it is always Rudra-Śiva alone who is in all creatures. He did not invite him, because he was creator and all. Or else, he was deluded through the god’s subtle
māyā
. But now he takes refuge to Śiva alone. Śiva accepts the praise and devotion and promises Dakṣa his companionship and the fruit of a thousand horse sacrifices and a hundred
vājapeyas
. He then tells him that he had extracted from the Vedas and its six branches the
Pāśupatavrata –
the method of liberating the
paśu
(“cattle”, designation of an unenlightened human being) from the
pāśa
(“noose”, designation of the fetters that bind humans into
saṃsāra)
. This Pāśupata religion is open to all, regardless of
vaṛna
or
āśrama
. The mere recitation of the text is supposed to bring about freedom from sickness and fear and to let one journey towards Rudraloka whence there is no return.

This myth is one of the oldest and most basic of the Śiva myths. The character of Śiva, the destroyer and the savior, comes out very clearly. Apart from the standard assurances given at the end of the chapter, that its reading or hearing makes one free from sin and free from disease, the story is clearly intended to prove the necessity of Śiva worship in order to be saved from his wrath, and the power of the grace of Śiva, once he is pleased with his devotees. In the older Pāśupata version Satī does not burn herself nor does Dakṣa get killed. In the more recent version both are killed and revived again by Śiva. It is remarkable that even in the oldest version Dakṣa is a Viṣṇu worshiper, recognizing Viṣṇu as the highest God to whom all sacrifices are due. Also remarkable in this oldest version is a trace of Vedānta, according to which Śiva considered himself as immanent in everything, and yet the other element is stronger. The ritualistic, sacrificial aspect according to which the gods individually are keen to get a share of the sacrifice, decides the outcome of the myth. The older versions just refer to “an ancient decree of the gods” according to which no share in the sacrifice is given to Rudra; the ritual texts give full evidence of it. People to whom this version was narrated must still have had the knowledge of it. The more recent version introduces an elaborate story to explain the mutual disaffection of Dakṣa and Śiva. The explanation is again typical of later times: because Śiva fails to pay honor to Dakṣa, Dakṣa curses him and immediately decrees that Śiva should receive no share. It is not only the omission of a gift from the sacrifice, but a harsh and lengthy curse that in this version brings about Śiva’s wrath and revenge. The original story certainly intended to persuade people, who for the most part followed the Vedic ritual and religion, to accept Śiva as a Great God and not to neglect him if they wanted to avoid his anger and to receive his blessing. The more recent version emphasizes much more the cruelty of Śiva, and his dreadful companions: it adds many details which have nothing to do with the story of Śiva-savior; it enlarges the role of Umā, and it often ends with an emphasis on Viṣṇu rather than Śiva.