Hinduism: A Short History (35 page)

The relationship between
jīva
and Śiva in the state of
mokṣa
is expressed by the simile of the river flowing into the sea: in
mokṣa
the individual is released from the state of
jīva
, that is, from limitations which make Śiva
Jīva;
the individual attains the all-pervading, undivided, and supreme
ākāśa-form
and bears the characteristics of
sat, cit
, and
ānanda
. It becomes possessed of the supreme quality of omniscience and acquires the
guṇas
of Parabrahman, Paraśiva, Śivaśankara, Rudreśvara, and Mahādeva and claims all the terms by which Parabrahman is called.

Śiva is worshiped under a
mūrta
(embodied) and an
amūrta
(un-embodied) form; though his own Parabrahman form is formless, he assumes a
Iīlā mangala vigraba
, a form in which he engages in auspicious playfulness, indicating to the
bhakta
the way to
mukti
. The person who is desirous of liberation and worships the
mūrta
form of Śiva finally reaches the
amūrta
form and attains
kaivalya mukti
(close to the Advaitic dissolution of all personality).

There is the case of the
jīvan-mukta
, who still lives in the world: though free from bondage, he undergoes the experiences of different worlds as long as he possesses a
liṅga-śarīra
. Śrīpati explains that even Mahādeva performed several acts such as the destruction of Vyāghrāsura, Gajāsura, Tripurāsura, drinking the poison, and protecting his
bhakta
Mārkaṇḍeya. He did this in order to show his
bhaktas
that they should do all that has been ordained.

Śrīpati holds that “a
mukta
in the beginning having obtained a status equal to that of Śiva as the result of his meditation and worship, will proceed from one heavenly place to another with a heavenly body and finally become absorbed in Śiva.”
¹¹⁵
Thus there is a growth in Śivahood, an increasing participation in the functions of Śiva after the essence of Śiva has been obtained. The
jīva
gradually acquires a controlling power over
karma
and the existence in a
sūkṣma
form like Parameśvara, which enables him according to his desire to create any number of bodies simultaneously. After this the
mukta
will realize the state of lordship of speech and observation, of hearing and knowledge, which constitutes Śivapada in Mahākailāsa, to continue there for an endless time in the company of
muktas
. The liberated ones eventually become the all-pervasive supreme ether in which the highest brahman manifests itself. They lose all sense of difference between themselves and the Supreme: “Having realized the state of
sarvajñātva
(omniscience), having obtained a large part of the
mukta
world and being released from all
punya
(merit) and
papa
(sin), they see nothing except Mahādeva.”
¹¹⁶

So much for the doctrine of the Vīra-Śaivas. They are reformist in social matters: they work toward the abolition of caste differences and the development of the community. Today they are a well-organized and politically active community, concentrated mostly in Karṇāṭaka. They are open to economic and technical progress and are quite affluent.

ŚIVA IMAGES AND WORSHIP

Śiva worship has been associated with the people of the Indus Civilization. Besides the images on soap stone seals interpreted as Paśupati and Śiva the Hunter, many phallic emblems have been found. The
liṅga
has been the most universal form in which Śiva has been worshiped throughout the ages. In Vedic times Śiva-Rudra had been an apotropaic god: his name was not even to be mentioned in order to prevent him from coming, far less would people have wanted his image. The
liṅga
, now closely associated with Śaivism, had been an old symbol of fertility and immortality and was therefore planted on graves and cremation grounds. It is found not only among high cultures but also among tribal ones.
¹¹⁷

From the third and second centuries B.C.E. we have indigenous coins with both phallic and anthropomorphic representations of Śiva. In later times the form of the
liṅga
becomes more stylized and less realistic, but there are exceptions. One of the earliest sculptures is the
liṅga
of Gudimallam in South India, still worshiped by Śaivites and considered to date from the second century B.C.E. In the Gupta period so-called
mukhaliṅgas
become frequent:
liṅgas
whose top-portions show one or more heads, very often the famous Sada-Śiva combination of Sadyotjata, Vāmadeva, Aghora, Tatpuruṣa, and Iśāna, the Pañcabrahmaśivavatāras of the
Śiva Purāṇa
. Though the artistic possibilities in representing the
Sivz-liṅga are
limited, its importance far surpasses that of any other form of Śiva representation. After the consecration (in case it is a human-made
liṅga)
, it is considered to be the salvific presence of Śiva. The myth of
Śivalingodbhava
, also represented in sculptures, in which Śiva in a human form comes out from the
Imga’s
opening sides, is meant to underline the real presence of Śiva in his symbol.
¹¹⁸
The
Śaiva Purāṇas
contain many narrations of the salvific effect of the worship of the
liṅga
, which according to some, are the safest way to attain
mukti
. Śaivas today see in the
Śiva-liṅga
an “abstract image” of Śiva, that is, a symbol of Śiva’s formlessness.
¹¹⁹

The cult-image in the
garbha-gṛha
of Śiva temples is usually a Śiva-
liṅga
, not an anthropomorphic figure. Yet anthropomorphic images are important, as the great number and sublime art of many Śiva representations prove. A well-known system divides them into twenty-five
līlā-mūrtis
, perhaps in line with the twenty-five
tattvas
of Śaiva Siddhānta.
¹²⁰

Most of the Śiva images are of the
sthāna
and
āsana
type, either Śiva alone (Candraśekhara), or with Umā (Umāsahitā), or with Umā and Skanda (Somaskanda).
Śayaṇamūrtis
of Śiva are not known except in the Śiva-Sāva images which belong to the Śāktas.

Nandi, Śiva’s
vāhana
and symbol, is often represented by himself, and sometimes Śiva and Pārvatī are shown seated on him. Kārttikeya, also a savior connected with Śiva, usually appears seated on a peacock. A local variety of Śiva worshiped in Mahārāṣhṭra is Kaithaba.

Among the anthropomorphic images of Śiva we can distinguish two basic types:
ugra (ghora)
and
saumya (śānta)
images. Both types are found in many forms. The
ugra-mūrtis
generally refer to one of the Śiva myths in which an enemy had to be destroyed by Śiva or one of his
avatāras
. Thus we find numerous Vīrabhadra images, Bhairavā figures, and Aghora representations. Generally these figures are illustrations of the scenes described in the
Purāṇas
.

The saumya-representation of Śiva also has a twofold expression: one is Śiva standing with one hand showing the
abhaya-
, the other showing the
varadā-mudrā
. Śiva is thus savior from fear and death, and dispenser of grace and boons. The other kind of
saumya-mūrti
is the
dakṣiṇā-mūrti:
Śiva as teacher of various arts, of Yoga and of
mokṣa
.

Strictly speaking, Śiva Naṭarāja images belong to this group of
dakṣiṇā-mūrtis
. But because of their frequency and their peculiar position within Indian art, they deserve to be dealt with separately. Some of the
saṃhāra-mūrtis
also show movement that could easily be taken as dancing, but the Śiva Naṭarāja images proper have a philosophy of their own: they show Śiva’s five main activities of
udbhava, sthiti, adana, tirobhāva
, and
anugraha
.

Although the South Indian Śaivites know Seven Dances of Śiva, the most important is usually the
ānanda tāṇḍava
. A Tamil text, the
Unmai ulakbam
, thus explains the symbolism underlying the dance of Śiva: “Creation arises from the drum; protection proceeds from the hand of hope; from fire proceeds destruction; from the foot that is planted upon Mūyalahan proceeds the destruction of evil; the foot held aloft gives
mukti
...”
¹²¹
The
tiruvasi
surrounding him symbolizes the act of obscuration
(tirobhāva)
. There is another variety of Śiva Naṭarājas, especially in northern and northeastern India: Śiva with ten or twelve arms, dancing in deep ecstasy upon the back of Nandin. In course of time many details have been added to the representation of Śiva Naṭarāja, each of which was given some particular meaning in the context of salvation through Śiva’s grace.

Śiva’s smile shows his transcendence, his absence of involvement in the process of which he is the master; his dance is his
līlā
. The circle of flames within which he dances is the symbol of
saṃsāra
. His three eyes have been interpreted variously as sun, moon, and fire, or as the three
śaktis
of Śiva,
icchā, jñāna
, and
kriyā
. The crescent in his hair indicates his being
cit
. Śiva usually wears a garland of skulls around his neck, symbol of his being
Kāla
, the Great Killer. The single skull which he is wearing in some images represents the skull of Brahmā: all the gods, from Brahmā downward, and all living beings are subject to death, Śiva alone is immortal. The snakes on his body are symbols of immortality: that their heads and ends are visible signifies that Śiva is the cause of the beginning and the end of the World. The Gaṅgā, the salvific purifying stream from heaven, passes through Śiva’s matted hair; he is the dispenser of all salvation.
¹²²

Apart from this
ānanda tāṇḍava
, two other forms of Śiva’s dance are found on images:
tripura tāṇḍava
representing in a symbolic way the destruction of the three
malas
, identified with the three demon-cities destroyed by Śiva.
vyūrtha tāṇḍava
is also called
anugraha tāṇḍava;
it expresses the bestowing of grace by Śiva upon the devotee, and makes the soul ready to receive
mukti
. In images it is shown in such a way that Śiva raises one leg up to his head while he dances. “The supreme place, however, where Śiva performs his dance, as agreed by all Siddhāntins, is the heart of the devotee.”
¹²³

In later times, after Śaiva systems had been developed, images have been produced which illustrate certain teachings of Śaiva sects: besides the Sadāśiva-images, with five faces and ten arms, we have Mahāsadā-
Śiva-mūrtis
with twenty-five faces, representing the twenty-five
tattvas
. In the Śiva
trimūrti
images the central face represents the blissful rest of supreme contemplation.

Worship of Śiva, recitation of certain names or hymns in honor of Śiva, rituals performed before his images are usually the only requirement to win Śiva’s grace. Even inadvertently performed acts of worship can win
mokṣa.
¹²⁴
No wonder, then, that worship is the central feature of Śaiva religion. Though
mukti
is a gift of Śiva, Śiva will give
mukti
unfailingly as soon as he receives worship from one of his devotees. Lengthy portions of the Śaiva scriptures deal with Śiva worship in its different forms.

In Śiva worship the most prominent place is occupied by the
liṅga
, which is normally the only object found in the
garbha-gṛha
, the
Sanctum Sanctorum
of a Śiva temple. Śiva worship centers on the
Śiva-liṅga
. Śivaratrl, celebrated universally on the seventh day of Phalguna even by Vaiṣṇavas, is the most solemn and most universal ritual worship of the
Śiva-liṅga
. The legend that explains its origin is meant to inculcate the necessity and the merit of the worship of the
liṅga
. The hunter who inadvertently dropped some dewdrops upon the
Śiva-liṅga
obtained
mokṣa
from Śiva. Certainly those then, who with devotion consciously worship the
liṅga
, will obtain
mokṣa
.

There are various kinds of
liṅgas
, made from different materials: Śaiva scriptures explain in detail what merit accrues from the worship of each of them. Many chapters in the Śaiva scriptures deal with the worship of the
liṅga:
many more deal with various other forms of Śiva worship. The purpose of all is to obtain Śiva’s grace and ultimately
mukti
.

Certain other objects that are considered sacred to Śiva are also conducive to salvation and are worshiped: thus, for example,
rudrākṣas, bhasma
, Bilva leaves, and others.

The Śaiva scriptures also speak of a
Śiva-bhakti
as a means to salvation: it consists largely in the performance of Śiva worship and the observance of certain modes of life. Śaivas also believe in the redemptive function of practices like
Śiva-śravana, Śiva-kīrtana, Śiva-manana
. Śiva-
japa
plays a large role in this context: the “five-syllable
mantra? Śivāya nāmab
, is the most effective
mantra
and invokes
mukti
. The recitation of Śiva hymns, especially the
Śivasahasranāma
, is also an integral part of Śiva worship. To show its importance, the
Śaiva Purāṇas
state that these hymns had been recited by Viṣṇu and Brahmā and other gods who came to Śiva suppliantly. Merit of good deeds is also extolled by Śaivas.

Śaivism from very early times on has been connected with asceticism and with extreme practices.
¹²⁵
Śaivism has produced many sects and religious orders, which have developed a great variety of practices, supposedly revealed by Śiva himself as necessary and conducive to salvation. Many of the epithets given to Śiva as early as in the
Śatarudriya
reflect practices of Śaiva ascetics: his deerskin dress, his matted hair, his wild dancing and laughing, his behaving like a madman, his besmearing the body with ashes, his living on cremation grounds. It is unclear whether Śiva received these attributes because groups of his worshipers followed such practices or whether his worshipers took up such practices, because they wanted to be “like Śiva.”