I Can Hear You Whisper (41 page)

Pakulak also studied Germans
:
Eric Pakulak and Helen J. Neville, “Maturational Constraints on the Recruitment of Early Processes for Syntactic Processing,”
Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience
23 no. 10 (2011): 2752–2765.

“
level of proficiency”
:
Eric Pakulak and Helen J. Neville, “Proficiency Differences in Syntactic Processing of Monolingual Native Speakers Indexed by Event-related Potentials,”
Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience
22 no. 12 (2010): 2728–2744.

depend in part on selective attention
:
Courtney Stevens and Helen Neville, “Different Profiles of Neuroplasticity in Human Neurocognition,” in S. Lipina and M. Sigman, eds.,
Cognitive Neuroscience and Education
, in press. http://bdl.uoregon.edu/Publications/Lipina%20chapter%20in%20press.pdf.

50 to 100 percent stronger
:
Ibid.

Using EEG, the children all underwent the same study
:
Courtney Stevens, Brittni Lauinger, and Helen Neville, “Differences in the Neural Mechanisms of Selective Attention in Children from Different Socioeconomic Backgrounds: An Event-Related Brain Potential Study,”
Developmental Science
12 no. 4 (2009): 634–646; Lisa D. Sanders et al., “Selective Auditory Attention in 3- to 5-Year-Old Children: An Event-Related Potential Study,”
Neuropsychologia
44 no. 11 (2006): 2126–2138. See also Head Start study, above.

CHAPTER 21: “I CAN'T TALK!”

For personal chapters, I relied on my journals, recollections of events, and files of reports about Alex from audiologists, doctors, speech therapists, and teachers. I also interviewed some of the professionals who have worked with Alex over the years.

CHAPTER 22: THE READING BRAIN

This chapter is based on interviews with Ken Pugh, Steve Frost, Usha Goswami, David Poeppel, Marc Marschark, and Beth Benedict.

“
an optional accessory”
:
Steven Pinker, quoted in Wolf,
Proust and the Squid
, 19.

a church of phonological awareness . . . At Haskins, the Libermans
:
Donald Shankweiler, “Words to Meanings,”
Scientific Studies of Reading
3 no. 2 (1999): 13–127 (
Reversals of letters and words
)
; Bennett A. Shaywitz et al., “The Functional Organization of Brain for Reading and Reading Disability (Dyslexia),”
Neuroscientist
2 no. 4 (1996): 245–255.

“
Made any discoveries today?”
:
Haskins Laboratories,
The Science of the Spoken and Written Word,
2005. http://www.haskins.yale.edu/CaseStatement/Haskinscase.pdf.

“
the entire speech stream”
:
Wolf,
Proust and the Squid
, 66–68.

preschool oral language skills are predictive
:
Bruce Pennington, University of Denver, “Definitions and Comorbidities of Developmental Disorders,” talk at 2011 Aspen Brain Forum.

how the brain reacts to speech
:
Bruce D. McCandliss, Vanderbilt University, “How Instructors Direct a Learner's Attention Impacts Neural Changes During Reading Acquisition,” talk at 2011 Aspen Brain Forum.

location of a kindergartner's brain response
:
U. Maurer et al., “Coarse Neural Tuning for Print Peaks when Children Learn to Read,”
Neuroimage
33 no. 2 (2006): 749–758; Sanne van der Mark et al., “The Left Occipitotemporal System in Reading: Disruption of Focal fMRI Connectivity to Left Inferior Frontal and Inferior Parietal Language Areas in Children with Dyslexia,”
Neuroimage
54 no. 3 (2011): 2426–2436.

National Reading Panel
:
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development,
Teaching Children to Read: An Evidence-Based Assessment of the Scientific Research Literature on Reading and its Implications for Reading Instruction
(US. Government Printing Office, 2000).

state of California
:
Dehaene,
Reading in the Brain
, 200.

Charlotte's Web
:
Wolf,
Proust and the Squid
, 131.

informed by neuroscience
:
For neuroscience of reading, see Bradley L. Schlaggar and Bruce D. McCandliss, “Development of Neural Systems for Reading,”
Annual Review of Neuroscience
30 (2007): 457–503; Stanislas Dehaene,
Reading in the Brain: The New Science of How We Read
(New York: Viking, 2009), chap. 5; and Wolf,
Proust and the Squid
, Part 2.

at the University of Oregon
:
Yoshiko Yamada et al., “Emergence of the Neural Network for Reading in Five-Year-Old Beginning Readers of Different Levels of Pre-Literacy Abilities: An fMRI Study,”
Neuroimage
57 no. 3 (2011): 704–713.

brain's ability to connect
:
Ibid., 94.

visual word form area
:
Bruce D. McCandliss, Laurent Cohen, and Stanislas Dehaene, “The Visual Word Form Area: Expertise for Reading in the Fusiform Gyrus,”
Trends in Cognitive Sciences
7 no. 7 (2003): 293–299.

The eyes impose constraints
:
Dehane,
Reading in the Brain
, 16–17.

Italian and Mandarin:
Ibid., 31–37.

Portuguese villages
:
Paulo Ventura et al., “The Locus of the Orthographic Consistency Effect in Auditory Word Recognition,”
Language and Cognitive Processes
19 no. 1 (2004): 57–95.

nonsense words
:
Interview with Ken Pugh. Mentioned in Paula Tallal's interview on Phonological Processing, with David Boulton, Children of the Code. http://www.childrenofthecode.org/interviews/tallal.htm.

A second study
:
Mark S. Seidenberg and Michael K. Tanenhaus, “Orthographic Effects on Rhyme Monitoring,”
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory
5 no. 6 (1979): 546–554.

Dennis and Victoria Molfese
:
For examples of work by the Molfeses, see Dennis L. Molfese, “Predicting Dyslexia at 8 Years of Age Using Neonatal Brain Responses,”
Brain and Language
72 no. 3 (2000): 238–245; Kimberly Andrews Espy et al., “Development of Auditory Event-Related Potentials in Young Children and Relations to Word-Level Reading Abilities at Age 8 Years,”
Annals of Dyslexia
54 no.1 (2004): 9–38.

“
about ninety-nine percent” correct
:
Kirsten Weir, “Catching Reading Problems Early,”
Monitor on Psychology
42 no. 4 (2011): 46.

Goswami's theory
:
Usha Goswami et al., “Amplitude Envelope Onsets and Developmental Dyslexia: A New Hypothesis,”
PNAS
99 no. 16 (2002): 10911–10916.

Anne-Lise Giraud
:
Katia Lehongre et al., “Altered Low-Gamma Sampling in Auditory Cortex Accounts for the Three Main Facets of Dyslexia,”
Neuron
72 no. 6 (2011): 1080–1090.

poetry
:
Ibid., 97.

Lynette Bradley and Peter Bryant
:
Ibid., 100.

“
As they listen”
:
Ibid., 223.

introduction of early hearing screenings
:
Karl R. White, “Newborn Hearing Screening,” in Madell and Flexer, eds.,
Pediatric Audiology
, 31–42.

Ken Pugh
:
For examples of Ken Pugh's work and more on the neuroscience of reading, see Ken Pugh et al., “Cerebral Organization of Component Processes in Reading,” Brain 119 (1996): 1221–1238; Ken Pugh et al., “Predicting Reading Performance from Neuroimaging Profiles: The Cerebral Basis of Phonological Effects in Printed Word Identification,”
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance
23 no. 2 (1997): 299–318; Rebecca Sandak et al., “The Neurobiological Basis of Skilled and Impaired Reading: Recent Findings and New Directions,”
Scientific Studies of Reading
8 no. 3 (2004): 273–292.

Research
with students at Gallaudet
:
Vicki L. Hanson and Carol A. Fowler, “Phonological Coding in Word Reading: Evidence from Hearing and Deaf Readers,”
Memory and Cognition
15 no. 3 (1987): 199–207.

emphasis on phonology is misplaced
:
Rachel I. Mayberry, Alex A. del Giudice, and Amy M. Lieberman, “Reading Achievement in Relation to Phonological Coding and Awareness in Deaf Readers: A Meta-Analysis,”
Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education
16 no. 2 (2011): 164–188; Rachel I. Mayberry, “When Timing Is Everything: Age of First-Language Acquisition Effects on Second-Language Learning,”
Applied Psycholinguistics
28 no. 3 (2007): 537–549.

What limited data there is
:
See Outcomes studies in chap. 18. Also see Caitlin M. Dillon, Kenneth de Jong, and David B. Pisoni, “Phonological Awareness, Reading Skills, and Vocabulary Knowledge in Children Who Use Cochlear Implants,”
Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education
17 no. 2 (2012): 205–226; Marschark,
Raising and Educating a Deaf Child
, chap. 7.

CHAPTER 23: DEAF LIKE ME

“
When my work faltered”
:
Josh Swiller, “I Think I Hear You,”
Washingtonian
, published online September 13 2010, at http://www.washingtonian.com/articles/people/i-think-i-hear-you/.

“
This is often the way”
:
For a discussion of Ursula Bellugi's work, see
Sacks,
Seeing Voices
, 63–82.

“
essentially nothing was known. . . . They invited deaf people”
:
“Remembering Dr. Edward S. Klima,”
Inside Salk
3 (2009). http://www.salk.edu/inside salk/print.php?id=91.

neurobiological foundations of sign language
:
Sacks,
Seeing Voices
, 74–75; Daphne Bavelier, David P. Corina, and Helen J. Neville, “Brain and Language: A Perspective from Sign Language,”
Neuron
21 no.2 (1998): 275–278; Mairéad MacSweeney et al., “The Signing Brain: The Neurobiology of Sign Language,”
Trends in Cognitive Sciences
12 no. 11 (2008): 432–440; Aaron J. Newman et al., “A Critical Period for Right Hemisphere Recruitment in American Sign Language Processing,”
Nature Neuroscience
5 no. 1 (2002): 76–80; Helen J. Neville et al., “Neural Systems Mediating American Sign Language: Effects of Sensory Experience and Age of Acquisition,”
Brain and Language
57 no. 3 (1997): 285–308; Ruth Campbell, Mairéad MacSweeney, and Dafydd Waters, “Sign Language and the Brain: A Review,”
Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education
13 no. 1 (2008): 3–20.

“
ASL is the only thing”
:
Barbara Kannapell, quoted in Sacks,
Seeing Voices
, 119.

Reliable statistics
:
“American Sign Language,”
Ethnologue
17th Edition, at https://www.ethnologue.com/language/ase/; “Languages Spoken at Home by Language: 2009,” 2012 Statistical Abstract, United States Census Bureau, at http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2012/tables/12s0053.pdf; Ross E. Mitchell et al., “How Many People Use ASL in the United States? Why Estimates Need Updating,”
Sign Language Studies
6 no. 3 (2006): 306–335; Padden and Humphries,
Inside Deaf Culture
, 9.

“
The inherent capability of children to acquire ASL”
:
National Association of the Deaf on American Sign Language. http://nad.org/issues/american-sign-language.

“
What bilingualism does”
:
Ellen Bialystok speaking on
The Brian Lehrer Show
, WNYC, April 10, 2013.

Research on bilingualism
:
Ellen Bialystok, Fergus I. M. Craik, and Gigi Luk, “Bilingualism: Consequences for Mind and Brain,”
Trends in Cognitive Sciences
16 no. 4 (2012): 240–250 (
“
one of the chief factors
”
); Yudhijit Bhattacharjee, “Why Bilinguals are Smarter,”
New York Times,
March 17, 2012; Perri Klass, “Hearing Bilingual: How Babies Sort Out Language,”
New York Times
, Oct. 10, 2011.

“The fact that you're constantly manipulating”
:
Bialystok, The Brian Lehrer Show, WNYC, April 10, 2013.

CHAPTER 24: THE COCKTAIL PARTY PROBLEM

This chapter is based on author interviews with Michael Dorman, Sarah Cook, John Ayers, Don Eddington, Hugh McDermott, and Karyn Galvin.

Lawrence Revit
:
Described to me by Michael Dorman. For more information, see R-SPACE sound system, at http://www.revitronix.com/.

Harvey Fletcher of Bell Labs described
:
Fletcher and Arnold,
Speech and Hearing
, 99.