Liars and Outliers (53 page)

Chimpanzees' aggression rates
Richard W. Wrangham, Michael L. Wilson, and Martin N. Muller (2006), “Comparative Rates of Violence in Chimpanzees and Humans,”
Primates
, 47:14–26.

Chapter 3

increased specialization
Raphaël Jeanson, Jennifer H. Fewell, Root Gorelick, and Susan M. Bertram (2007), “Emergence of Increased Division of Labor as a Function of Group Size,”
Behavioral Ecology
&
Sociobiology
, 62:289–98.

not what makes
Anna Dornhaus (2008), “Specialization Does Not Predict Individual Efficiency in an Ant,”
PLOS Biology
, 6:e285.

startling statistic
Dwayne C. Savage (1977), “Microbial Ecology of the Gastrointestinal Tract,”
Annual Review of Microbiology
, 31:107–33.

some mixture
Stephen Le and Robert Boyd (2007), “Evolutionary Dynamics of the Continuous Iterated Prisoner's Dilemma,”
Journal of Theoretical Biology
, 245:258–67.

population density
Pierre Auger and Dominique Pontier (1998), “Fast Game Theory Coupled to Slow Population Dynamics: The Case of Domestic Cat Populations,”
Mathematical Biosciences
, 148:65–82.

South African meerkats
Tim H. Clutton-Brock, Peter N.M. Brotherton, M. Justin O'Riain, Ashleigh S. Griffin, David Gaynor, Ruth Kansky, Lynda Sharpe, and Grant M. McIlrath (2001), “Contributions to Cooperative Rearing in Meerkats,”
Animal Behaviour
, 61:705–10. Alex Thornton (2008), “Social Learning about Novel Foods in Young Meerkats,”
Animal Behaviour
, 76:1411–21.

Red ruffed lemurs
Natalie Vasey (2007), “The Breeding System of Wild Red Ruffed Lemurs (
Varecia rubra
): A Preliminary Report,”
Primates
, 48:41–54.

much less common
Lee Alan Dugatkin (1997),
Cooperation Among Animals: An Evolutionary Perspective
, Oxford University Press.

also slow
Carl T. Bergstrom and Michael Lachmann (2003), “The Red King Effect: Evolutionary Rates and the Division of Surpluses in Mutualisms,” in Peter Hammerstein, ed.,
Genetic and Cultural Evolution of Cooperation
, MIT Press, 223–8.

Wrasse cleaner fish
Frans de Waal (Apr 2005), “How Animals Do Business,”
Scientific American
, 72–79.

Elephant seals
Burney J. Le Boeuf (1974), “Male-Male Competition and Reproductive Success in Elephant Seals,”
American Zoologist
, 14:163–76.

some bullfrogs
Richard D. Howard (1978), “The Evolution of Mating Strategies in Bullfrogs,
Rana catesbeiana
,”
Evolution
, 32:850–71.

everyone is a dove
Valerius Geist (1974), “On the Relationship of Social Evolution and Ecology in Ungulates,”
American Zoologist
, 14:205–20.

there is a mixture
John Maynard Smith and Geoffrey A. Parker (1976), “The Logic of Asymmetric Contests,”
Animal Behaviour
, 24:159–75. Peter Hammerstein (1981), “The Role of Asymmetries in Animal Contests,”
Animal Behaviour
, 29:193–205.

Kaushik Basu
Kaushik Basu (1984),
The Less-Developed Economy: A Critique of Contemporary Theory
, Oxford University Press, 5–6.

Neuroscience is starting
Kerri Smith (2011), “Neuroscience vs Philosophy: Taking Aim at Free Will,”
Nature
, 477:23–5.

Ultimatum game
Charles A. Holt (2000), “Y2K Bibliography of Experimental Economics and Social Science: Ultimatum Game Experiments,” University of Virginia. Hessel Oosterbeek, Randolph Sloof, and Gijs van de Kuilen (2004), “Cultural Differences in Ultimatum Game Experiments: Evidence From a Meta-Analysis,”
Experimental Economics
, 7:171–88.

how the game works
Werner Güth, Rolf Schmittberger, and Bernd Schwarze (1982), “An Experimental Analysis of Ultimatum Bargaining,”
Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization
, 3:267–88.

turn down offers
Hessel Oosterbeek, Randolph Sloof, and Gijs van de Kuilen (2004), “Differences in Ultimatum Game Experiments: Evidence from a Meta-Analysis,”
Experimental Economics
, 7:171–88.

cultural backgrounds
Donna L. Bahry (2004), “Trust in Transitional Societies: Experimental Results from Russia,” Paper presented at the American Political Science Association Meeting, Chicago. Michael Gurven and Jeffrey Winking (2008), “Collective Action in Action: Prosocial Behavior In and Out of the Laboratory,” 110:179–90. Joseph Henrich (2000), “Does Culture Matter in Economic Behavior? Ultimatum Game Bargaining Among the Machiguenga of the Peruvian Amazon,”
American Economic Review
, 90:973–9. Joseph Henrich, Robert Boyd, Samuel Bowles, Colin Camerer, Ernst Fehr, Herbert Gintis, Richard McElreath, Michael Alvard, Abigail Barr, Jean Ensminger, Kim Hill, Francisco Gil-White, Michael Gurven, Frank Marlowe, John Q. Patton, Natalie Smith, and David Tracer (2005), “'Economic Man' in Cross-Cultural Perspective: Behavioral Experiments in 15 Small-Scale Societies,”
Behavioral & Brain Sciences
, 28:795–855. Joseph Henrich, Richard McElreath, Abigail Barr, Jean Ensminger Clark Barrett, Alexander Bolyanatz, Juan Camilo Cardenas, Michael Gurven, Edwins Gwako, Natalie Henrich, Carolyn Lesorogol, Frank Marlowe, David Tracer, and John Ziker (2006), “Costly Punishment Across Human Societies,”
Science
, 312:1767–70.

large amounts of money
Juan Camilo Cardenas and Jeffrey P. Carpenter (2005), “Experiments and Economic Development: Lessons from Field Labs in the Developing World,” Middlebury College Economics Discussion Paper No. 0505.

more lopsided
Daniel Kahneman, John L. Knetsch, and Richard H. Thaler (1986), “Fairness and the Assumptions of Economics,”
Journal of Business
, 59:S285–S300. Christoph Engel (2011), “Dictator Games: A Meta Study,”
Experimental Economics
, 14:584–610.

Trust game
Joyce Berg, John Dickhaut, and Kevin McCabe (1995), “Trust, Reciprocity, and Social History,”
Games
&
Economic Behavior
, 10:122–42.

not what happens
Colin Cramer (2003),
Behavioral Game Theory: Experiments in Strategic Interaction
, Russell Sage Foundation.

Public Goods game
John O. Ledyard (1995), “Public Goods: A Survey of Experimental Research,” in Alvin E. Roth and John H. Kagel, eds.,
Handbook of Experimental Economics
, Princeton University Press.

fear of rejection
Daniel Kahneman, John L. Knetsch, and Richard H Thaler (1986), “Fairness and the Assumptions of Economics,”
Journal of Business
, 59:S285–S300. Joseph Henrich, Robert Boyd, Samuel Bowles, Colin Camerer, Ernst Fehr, Herbert Gintis, Richard McElreath, Michael Alvard, Abigail Barr, Jean Ensminger, Kim Hill, Francisco Gil-White, Michael Gurven, Frank Marlowe, John Q. Patton, Natalie Smith, and David Tracer (2005), “'Economic Man' in Cross-Cultural Perspective: Behavioral Experiments in 15 Small-Scale Societies,”
Behavioral & Brain Sciences
, 28:795–855.

Some researchers claim
Ernst Fehr and Urs Fischbacher (2005), “Human Altruism: Proximate Patterns and Evolutionary Origins,”
Analyse & Kritik
, 27:6–47.

Others claim
Roland Bénabou and Jean Tirole (2006), “Incentives and Prosocial Behavior,”
American Economic Review
, 96:1652–78. Amihai Glazer and Kai A. Konrad (1996) “A Signaling Explanation for Charity,”
American Economic Review
, 86:1019–28. Dan Ariely, Anat Bracha, and Stephan Meier (2008), “Doing Good or Doing Well? Image Motivation and Monetary Incentives in Behaving Prosocially,” Federal Reserve Bank of Boston Working Paper No. 07–9.

fair solutions
Gary E. Bolton, Elena Katok, and Rami Zwick (1998), “Dictator Game Giving: Rules of Fairness Versus Acts of Kindness,”
International Journal of Game Theory
, 27:269–99.

do what was fair
Joseph Henrich, Robert Boyd, Samuel Bowles, Colin Camerer, Ernst Fehr, Herbert Gintis, Richard McElreath, Michael Alvard, Abigail Barr, Jean Ensminger, Kim Hill, Francisco Gil-White, Michael Gurven, Frank Marlowe, John Q. Patton, Natalie Smith, and David Tracer (2005), “'Economic Man' in Cross-Cultural Perspective: Behavioral Experiments in 15 Small-Scale Societies,”
Behavioral & Brain Sciences
, 28:795–855.

act of skill
Elizabeth Hoffman, Kevin McCabe, Keith Shachat, and Vernon L. Smith (1994), “Preferences, Property Rights, and Anonymity in Bargaining Games,”
Games & Economic Behavior
, 7:346–80.

other way, too
Bradley J. Ruffle (1998), “More Is Better, But Fair Is Fair: Tipping in Dictator and Ultimatum Games,”
Games & Economic Behavior
, 23:247–76.

punish other players
Christopher T. Dawes, James H. Fowler, Tim Johnson, Richard McElreath, and Oleg Smirnov (2007), “Egalitarian Motivations in Humans,”
Nature
, 446:794–6.

the punishment works
Ernst Fehr and Simon Gächter (2002), “Altruistic Punishment in Humans,”
Nature
, 415:137–40. James H. Fowler and Nicholas A. Christakis (2010), “Cooperative Social Behavior Cascades in Human Social Networks,”
PNAS Early Edition.

results are mixed
David Rand, Anna Dreber, Tore Ellingsen, Drew Fundeberg, and Martin Nowak (2009), “Positive Interactions Promote Public Cooperation,”
Science
, 325:1272–5. Christopher T. Dawes, James H. Fowler, Tim Johnson, Richard McElreath, and Oleg Smirnov (2007), “Egalitarian Motivations in Humans,”
Nature
, 446:794–6. James Andreoni, William Harbaugh, and Lise Vesterlund (2003), “The Carrot or the Stick: Rewards, Punishments, and Cooperation,”
The American Economic Review
, 93:893–902.

game is about taking
Nicholas Bardsley (2008), “Dictator Game Giving: Altruism or Artifact?”
Experimental Economics
, 11:122–33.

Distrust game
Iris Bohnet and Stephan Meier (2005), “Deciding to Distrust,” Federal Reserve Bank of Boston Public Policy Discussion Paper 05–4.

half of the money
Ernst Fehr and Klaus M. Schmidt (1999), “A Theory of Fairness, Competition, and Cooperation,”
The Quarterly Journal of Economics
, 114:817–68. Daniel Kahneman, John L. Knetsch, and Richard H Thaler (1986), “Fairness and the Assumptions of Economics,”
Journal of Business
, 59:S285–S300.

who are skeptical
Ilan Dinstein, Cibu Thomas, Marlene Behrmann, and David J. Heeger (2008), “A Mirror Up to Nature,”
Current Biology
, 18:R13–8. Kaspar Meyer and Antonio Damasio (2008), “Mirror Neurons: Behind the Looking Glass,”
Nature
, 454:167–8. Gregory Hickok (2009), “Eight Problems for the Mirror Neuron Theory of Action Understanding in Monkeys and Humans,”
Cognitive Neurosciences
, 21:1229–43.

prototype effect
Eleanor Rosch (1975), “Cognitive Representation of Semantic Categories,”
Journal of Experimental Psychology
, 104:192–233. George Lakoff (1987),
Women, Fire and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal About the Mind
, University of Chicago Press.

In many societies
Rebecca L. Bliege Bird and Douglas W. Bird (1997), “Delayed Reciprocity and Tolerated Theft: The Behavioral Ecology of Food-Sharing Strategies,”
Current Anthropology
, 38:49–78. Serge Bahuchet (1990), “Food Sharing Among the Pygmies of Central Africa,”
African Study Monographs
, 11:27–53. Catherline Feeley (2011), “The Host's Dilemma: Game Theory and Homeric Hospitality,” Classical Association of Canada Annual Meeting, Vancouver, Canada, 11 May 2002, unpublished conference paper.

majority belief
Martin A. Nowak, Corina E. Tarnita, and Edward O. Wilson (2010), “The Evolution of Eusociality,”
Nature
, 466:1057–62.

One rebuttal
Patrick Abbot, Jun Abe, John Alcock, et al. (2011), “Inclusive Fitness Theory and Eusociality,”
Nature
, 471:E1–4.

reinforced each other
Robert Wright (1994),
The Moral Animal: The New Science of Evolutionary Psychology
, Pantheon Books, 201–2.

many books published
Michael Shermer (2004),
The Science of Good and Evil: Why People Cheat, Gossip, Care, Share, and Follow the Golden Rule
, Times Books. Nigel Barber (2004),
Kindness in a Cruel World: The Evolution of Altruism
, Prometheus Books. Donald W. Pfaff (2007),
The Neuroscience of Fair Play: Why We (Usually) Follow the Golden Rule
, Dana Press. Martin A. Nowak and Roger Highfield (2011),
SuperCooperators: Altruism, Evolution, and Why We Need Each Other to Succeed
, Free Press. Patricia S. Churchland (2011),
Braintrust: What Neuroscience Tells Us About Morality
, Princeton University Press.

older book
Matt Ridley (1996),
The Origins of Virtue
, Viking.

Chapter 4

evolutionary psychology
Edward O. Wilson (1975),
Sociobiology: The New Synthesis
, Harvard University Press. Edward O. Wilson (1978),
On Human Nature
, Harvard University Press.