The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics
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Authors: Iain McLean
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The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics
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A
abortion
absolutism
Originally (1733) a theological concept referring to God's total power to decide about salvation. Extended to politics indicating a regime in which the ruler might legitimately decide anything. Usually applied to monarchical regimes of the early modern period, chiefly that of Louis XIV of France, although the term was not used politically until towards the end of the eighteenth century when many such regimes were about to disappear. Unlike tyrannies, absolutist regimes are usually seen to have been legitimate, as indicated by Louis XVI of France in November 1788, just before the
French Revolution
, when he said to his cousin, the duc d'Orléans (father of the future king Louis Philippe, 1830–48), that any decision he made was legal because he willed it. Some contemporary historians deny that absolutism ever referred to an unlimited power or authority, but was always restricted by traditions and practices which effectively limited its scope.
CS
French Revolution
, when he said to his cousin, the duc d'Orléans (father of the future king Louis Philippe, 1830–48), that any decision he made was legal because he willed it. Some contemporary historians deny that absolutism ever referred to an unlimited power or authority, but was always restricted by traditions and practices which effectively limited its scope.
CS
accountability
The requirement for representatives to answer to the represented on the disposal of their powers and duties, act upon criticisms or requirements made of them, and accept (some) responsibility for failure, incompetence, or deceit. Members of a legislature may be brought to account for their voting record by party officials such as
whips
, their local parties, or their constituents. Government ministers are accountable additionally for government decisions to a legislature and the voting public. In Britain it is intended that ministers observe the concepts of both individual
ministerial responsibility
and
collective responsibility
, and find parliamentary debate, select committee investigations, and the media the key forums in which their accountability is maintained. The accountability of bureaucrats varies according to their level of politicization. For example, in the USA officials of an administration are political appointees who may be required to take personal responsibility for their actions. In Britain, however, while they may be asked to answer questions before a
select committee
, civil servants are nominally neutral and are made accountable for their actions only in cases of maladministration. Otherwise it is assumed that their actions are taken on behalf of ministers, and, hence, accountability for their actions is maintained through the concept of individual ministerial responsibility.
Arguments may be advanced that politicians and officials can be made too accountable, thus hampering them in carrying out their duties and powers. However, in Britain concern is more frequently expressed about the weakness of accountability. Ministers in practice do not observe the concept of ministerial responsibility for their own actions. At the same time reforms have blurred the hierarchic organization of the civil service which underpinned the concept of ministerial responsibility. More generally, complaint is made that there is a lack of accountability for key parts of government activity, such as the security services. Similarly, the proliferation of
quangos
enables their officials to refer inquiries made by the public to the parliamentary process and ministers to refer MPs' inquiries to quango officials.
JBr
whips
, their local parties, or their constituents. Government ministers are accountable additionally for government decisions to a legislature and the voting public. In Britain it is intended that ministers observe the concepts of both individual
ministerial responsibility
and
collective responsibility
, and find parliamentary debate, select committee investigations, and the media the key forums in which their accountability is maintained. The accountability of bureaucrats varies according to their level of politicization. For example, in the USA officials of an administration are political appointees who may be required to take personal responsibility for their actions. In Britain, however, while they may be asked to answer questions before a
select committee
, civil servants are nominally neutral and are made accountable for their actions only in cases of maladministration. Otherwise it is assumed that their actions are taken on behalf of ministers, and, hence, accountability for their actions is maintained through the concept of individual ministerial responsibility.
Arguments may be advanced that politicians and officials can be made too accountable, thus hampering them in carrying out their duties and powers. However, in Britain concern is more frequently expressed about the weakness of accountability. Ministers in practice do not observe the concept of ministerial responsibility for their own actions. At the same time reforms have blurred the hierarchic organization of the civil service which underpinned the concept of ministerial responsibility. More generally, complaint is made that there is a lack of accountability for key parts of government activity, such as the security services. Similarly, the proliferation of
quangos
enables their officials to refer inquiries made by the public to the parliamentary process and ministers to refer MPs' inquiries to quango officials.
JBr
Adams , John
(1735–1826)
American revolutionary politician and political theorist. Trained as a lawyer in Massachusetts, he helped formulate the argument that the US colonies had never legitimately been subject to the jurisdiction of the British parliament. After independence he was the intellectual leader of the conservative wing of the revolution, arguing in his
Defence of the Constitutions… of the USA
(1787) that the Senate ought to be chosen from among the rich and the intelligent. Until
c.
1796 he nevertheless retained a friendship with the much more radical
Jefferson
, perhaps because of their common exposure to the French
Enlightenment
when they had been diplomats in the 1780s. The friendship was broken by Adams's partisan Presidency (1797–1801), although Adams was less extreme in his partisanship of urban, commercial policies than the fiery
Hamilton
. It was resumed in 1812 and led to a warm and wise exchange of letters which ended with the death of both men on the same day—4 July 1826, the fiftieth anniversary of the signing of the Declaration of Independence.
American revolutionary politician and political theorist. Trained as a lawyer in Massachusetts, he helped formulate the argument that the US colonies had never legitimately been subject to the jurisdiction of the British parliament. After independence he was the intellectual leader of the conservative wing of the revolution, arguing in his
Defence of the Constitutions… of the USA
(1787) that the Senate ought to be chosen from among the rich and the intelligent. Until
c.
1796 he nevertheless retained a friendship with the much more radical
Jefferson
, perhaps because of their common exposure to the French
Enlightenment
when they had been diplomats in the 1780s. The friendship was broken by Adams's partisan Presidency (1797–1801), although Adams was less extreme in his partisanship of urban, commercial policies than the fiery
Hamilton
. It was resumed in 1812 and led to a warm and wise exchange of letters which ended with the death of both men on the same day—4 July 1826, the fiftieth anniversary of the signing of the Declaration of Independence.
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