The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions (2723 page)

(fl.
c.
450 BCE)
. Early Chinese philosopher. He seems to have taught a doctrine of self-preservation in opposition to hedonism. No complete work of his survives, but he is often referred to in later works such as
Lü-shih ch'un ch'iu
(Mr Lü's Springs and Autumns), which may preserve authentic fragments from his writings or sayings.

 
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(Chin., ‘nourishing the life principle’). Collective term for Taoist exercises to prolong life and attain immortality, whether addressed to body (
yang-sheng
) or mind (
yang-shen
).

 
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c.
810–
c.
887)
. Ch'an/Zen master, dharma-successor (
hassu
) of Kuei-shan Ling-yu (see
KUEI-YANG-TSUNG
), and so renowned that he became known as ‘the little
kyamuni’. His parents opposed his early inclination to become a monk until he presented them with two of his chopped-off fingers as a mark of his determination. He visited many masters, including
Ma-tsu
and
Pai-chang
, but found perfect connection with Kuei-shan. The two are regarded as co-founders of the Igyo school, with its emphasis on the ninety-seven circles of contemplation.

 
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(Chin., ‘nourishing the mind’). Taoist practice, especially of the inner deity hygiene school (see
TAOISM
), to prevent the inner deities from leaving the body.

 
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(Chin., ‘nourishing the body’). Taoist practices, especially through breathing and directing the breath (
ch'i
) to prolong life and attain immortality.

 
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