The Encyclopedia of Essential Oils (24 page)

Evernia prunastri

FAMILY Usneaceae

SYNONYMS Mousse de chêne, treemoss.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A light green lichen found growing primarily on oak trees, but sometimes other species.

DISTRIBUTION The oak
(Quercus robur)
is indigenous to Europe and North America; the lichen is collected all over central and southern Europe, especially France, Yugoslavia, Hungary, Greece, and also Morocco and Algeria. The aromatic materials are prepared mainly in France, but also in the USA, Bulgaria and Yugoslavia.

OTHER SPECIES There are many varieties of lichen used for their aromatic qualities, the most common being
E. furfuracea
and
Usnea barbata
which are frequently gathered from spruce and pine trees, and are known as fir moss or tree moss in Europe, but in the USA are also called oakmoss. However they are less refined than the ‘true’ oakmoss. Other species include
Sticta pulmonaceae
or
Lobaria pulmonaria, Usnea ceratina
, and some members of the
Ramalina, Alectoria
and
Parmelia
groups.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION
Sticta pulmonaceae
, a greeny-brown lichen also found growing on oak trees and frequently harvested along with
E. prunastri
, is also called oak lungs, lung moss, lungwort or ‘lungs of oak’ by the North American Indians who use it for respiratory complaints and for treating wounds. It is called lobaria in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia and is used for asthma, bronchitis and coughs in children.

Many types of lichen, especially the
Parmelia
group, are used as vegetable dyes.

ACTIONS Antiseptic, demulcent, expectorant, fixative.

EXTRACTION A range of products is produced: a concrete and an absolute by solvent extraction from the lichen which has often been soaked in lukewarm water prior to extraction; an absolute oil by vacuum distillation of the concrete; resins and resinoids by alcohol extraction of the raw material. Most important of these products is the absolute.

CHARACTERISTICS 1. The absolute is a dark green or brown, very viscous liquid with an extremely tenacious, earthy-mossy odour and a leatherlike undertone. 2. The absolute oil is a pale yellow or olive viscous liquid with a dry-earthy, barklike odour, quite true to nature. 3. The concrete, resin and resinoids are a very dark-coloured semi-solid or solid mass with a heavy, rich-earthy, extremely tenacious odour. They have a high fixative value and blend with virtually all other oils: they are extensively used in perfumery to lend body and rich natural undertones to all perfume types.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Crystalline matter of so-called ‘lichen acids’: mainly evernic acid, d-usnic acid, some atranorine and chloratronorine.

SAFETY DATA Extensively compounded or bouquetted’ by cutting or adulteration
with other lichen or synthetic perfume materials.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE As a fixative.

OTHER USES The concrete is used primarily in soaps; the absolute is the most versatile and is used in all perfume types (oriental, moss, fougère, new-mown hay, floral, colognes, aftershaves, etc.). The absolute oil is used in high class perfumes. The resins and resinoids, which have a poor solubility, are used in soaps, hair preparations, industrial perfumes and low cost products.

Allium cepa

FAMILY Liliaceae

SYNONYMS Common onion, Strasburg onion.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A perennial or biennial herb up to 1.2 metres high with hollow leaves and flowering stem, and a globelike fleshy bulb.

DISTRIBUTION Native of western Asia and the Middle East, it has a long history of cultivation all over the world, mainly for culinary use. The essential oil is mainly produced in France, Germany and Egypt from the ‘red’ onion.

OTHER SPECIES There are numerous species of onion which have been developed, which include the Spanish or silver-skinned onion, the Tripoli and the red onion. See also Botanical Classification.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Onion has an ancient reputation as a curative agent, highly extolled by the schools of Galen and Hippocrates. It is high in vitamins A, B and C and shares many of the properties of garlic, to which it is closely related. Raw onion helps to keep colds and infections at bay, promotes strong bones and a good blood supply to all the tissues. It acts as an effective blood cleanser which, along with the sulphur it contains, helps to keep the skin clear and in good condition.

It has a sound reputation for correcting glandular imbalance and weight problems; it also improves lymphatic drainage which is often responsible for oedema and puffiness.

Onion has long been used as a home ‘simple’ for a wide range of conditions: ‘As a poultice they are invaluable for the removal of hard tumours. In this form they afford relief in cases of suppressed gout or obstructed circulation … Onions tend to soothe the nerves and induce sleep. They stimulate the action of the skin and remove obstructions of the viscera … raw onions, bruised are good for burns and scalds in the absence of other remedies … applied to the sting or bite of any poisonous insect often proves all that is desired.’
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ACTIONS Anthelmintic, antimicrobial, antirheumatic, antiseptic, antisclerotic, antispasmodic, antiviral, bactericidal, carminative, depurative, digestive, diuretic, expectorant, fungicidal, hypocholesterolaemic, hypoglycaemic, hypotensive, stomachic, tonic, vermifuge.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the bulb. (An oleoresin is also produced in small quantities for flavouring use.)

CHARACTERISTICS A pale yellow or brownish-yellow mobile liquid with strong, unpleasant, sulphuraceous odour with a lachrymatory (tear-producing) effect.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Mainly dipropyl disulphide, also methylpropyl disulphide, dipropyl trisulphide, methylpropyl trisulphide and allylpropyl disulphide, among others.

SAFETY DATA Specific safety data unavailable at present – probably similar to garlic, i.e. generally non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE None, due to its offensive smell.

OTHER USES Used in some pharmaceutical
preparations for colds, coughs, etc. The oil is extensively used in most major food categories, especially meats, savouries, salad dressings, as well as alcoholic and soft drinks. It is not used in perfumery work.

Commiphora erythraea

FAMILY Burseraceae

SYNONYMS
C. erythraea var. glabrascens
, bisabol myrrh, sweet myrrh.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A tall tropical tree, similar to myrrh (to which it is closely related), which contains a natural oleogum resin in tubular vessels between the bark and wood of the trunk. The natives make incisions in the trunk of the tree to increase the yield. The crude gum dries to form dark reddish-brown tear-shaped lumps with a sweet-woody, rootlike odour.

DISTRIBUTION Native to East Africa (Somalia) and eastern Ethiopia (Harrar Province) where it grows wild. The essential oil production is generally carried out in the USA and Europe from the crude oleogum resin.

OTHER SPECIES The original or ‘true’ opopanax used in perfumery was derived from a large plant
Opopanax chironium
or
Pastinaca opopanax
, a plant similar to the parsnip of the Umbelliferae family and native to the Levant region, Sudan and Arabia. The oleogum resin was obtained by cutting into the stem at the base, which then produces reddish-yellow tears of a strong rootlike, parsnip or celery-type smell. This type of opopanax is now unavailable, and has been replaced by a similar type of oil known as ‘bisabol myrrh’.

Not to be confused with cassie
(Acacia farnesiana)
, which is also known as ‘opopanax’.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Opopanax derived from O.
chironium
is described as having antispasmodic, expectorant, emmenagogue and antiseptic properties, which used to be employed in asthma, hysteria and visceral afflictions. In the Far East the bisabol myrrh is used extensively as an ingredient in incense.

ACTIONS Antiseptic, antispasmodic, balsamic, expectorant.

EXTRACTION 1. Essential oil by steam (or water) distillation from the crude oleogum resin. 2. A resinoid by solvent extraction from the crude oleogum resin.

CHARACTERISTICS 1. An orange, yellow or olive liquid with a sweet-balsamic, spicy, warm, animal-like odour (it does not contain a medicinal note like myrrh). It resinifies on exposure to air. 2. A solid dark mass with a warm, powdery, sweet-balsamic, rooty odour. It blends well with clary sage, coriander, labdanum, bergamot, myrrh, frankincense, vetiver, sandalwood, patchouli, mimosa, fir needle and neroli.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS The crude contains resins, gums (50–80 per cent) and essential oils (10–20 per cent), notably the sesquiterpene ‘bisabolene’ and sesquiterpene alcohols.

SAFETY DATA Frequently adulterated – it is more expensive than the ‘hirabol myrrh’. The commercial resinoid is also usually mixed with a solvent such as myristate, because it is otherwise unpourable at room temperatures.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE Possibly similar uses to myrrh.

OTHER USES Used as a fixative and fragrance component in high class perfumery. Used in liqueurs to lend body and add winelike notes.

Citrus aurantium var. amara

FAMILY Rutaceae

SYNONYMS
C. vulgaris, C. bigaradia
, Seville orange, sour orange bigarade (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION An evergreen tree up to 10 metres high with dark green, glossy, oval leaves, paler beneath, with long but not very sharp spines. It has a smooth greyish trunk and branches, and very fragrant white flowers. The fruits are smaller and darker than the sweet orange. It is well known for its resistance to disease and is often used as root stock for other citrus trees, including the sweet orange.

DISTRIBUTION Native to the Far East, especially India and China, but has become well adapted to the Mediterranean climate. It also grows abundantly in the USA (California), Israel and South America. Main producers of the oil include Spain, Guinea, the West Indies, Italy, Brazil and the USA.

OTHER SPECIES There are numerous different species according to location – oils from Spain and Guinea are said to be of superior quality.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION ‘Oranges and lemons strengthen the heart, are good for diminishing the coagubility of the blood, and are beneficial for palpitation, scurvy, jaundice, bleedings, heartburn, relaxed throat, etc. They are powerfully anti-scorbutic, either internally or externally applied.’
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The dried bitter orange peel is used as a tonic and carminative in treating dyspepsia.

In Chinese medicine the dried bitter orange and occasionally its peel are used in treating prolapse of the uterus and of the anus, diarrhoea, and blood in the faeces. Ingestion of large amounts of orange peel in children, however, has been reported to cause toxic effects.

ACTIONS Anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, astringent, bactericidal, carminative, choleretic, fungicidal, sedative (mild), stomachic, tonic.

EXTRACTION An essential oil by cold expression (hand or machine pressing) from the outer peel of the almost ripe fruit. (A terpeneless oil is also produced.) The leaves are used for the
production of petitgrain oil; the blossom for neroli oil.

CHARACTERISTICS A dark yellow or brownish-yellow mobile liquid with a fresh, dry, almost floral odour with a rich, sweet undertone.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Over 90 per cent monoterpenes: mainly limonene, myrcene, camphene, pinene, ocimene, cymene, and small amounts of alcohols, aldehydes and ketones.

SAFETY DATA Phototoxic; otherwise generally non-toxic, non-irritant and non-sensitizing. Limonene has been reported to cause contact dermatitis in some individuals.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE
See sweet orange.

OTHER USES Used in certain stomachic, laxative and carminative preparations. Employed as a fragrance component in soaps, detergents, cosmetics, colognes and perfumes. Extensively used as a flavouring material, especially in liqueurs and soft drinks. Also utilized as a starting material for the isolation of natural limonene.

Citrus aurantium var. amara

FAMILY Rutaceae

SYNONYMS C.
vulgaris, C. bigaradia
, orange flower, neroli, neroli bigarade.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION An evergreen tree up to 10 metres high with glossy dark green leaves and fragrant white flowers. There are two flowering seasons when the blossom is picked, one in May and another in October (in mild weather). See also
bitter orange.

DISTRIBUTION Native to the Far East, but well adapted to the Mediterranean climate. Major producers include Italy, Tunisia, Morocco, Egypt, America and especially France.

OTHER SPECIES The sweet orange
(
C.
aurantium var. dulcis)
is also used to make an absolute and oil called neroli Portugal or neroli petalae – however, it is less fragrant and considered of inferior quality.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION This oil was named after a princess of Nerola in Italy, who loved to wear it as a perfume. Orange flowers have many folk associations. They were used in bridal bouquets and wreaths, to calm any nervous apprehension before the couple retired to the marriage bed.