The Encyclopedia of Essential Oils (27 page)

CHARACTERISTICS A water-white to pale olive mobile liquid with a fresh, dry-woody, warm, spicy scent. It blends well with frankincense, sandalwood, lavender, rosemary, marjoram, spices and florals (in minute quantities).

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Mainly monoterpenes (70–80 per cent): thujene, pinene, camphene, sabinene, carene, myrcene, limonene, phellandrene, and sesquiterpenes (20–30 per cent) and oxygenated compounds.

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-sensitizing, irritant in high concentration due to rubefacient properties. Use in moderation only.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

SKIN CARE
: Chilblains.

CIRCULATION, MUSCLES AND JOINTS
: Anaemia, arthritis, muscular aches and pains, neuralgia, poor circulation, poor muscle tone (muscular atonia), rheumatic pain, sprains, stiffness.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
: Catarrh, chills.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
: Colic, constipation, diarrhoea, flatulence, heartburn, loss of appetite, nausea.

IMMUNE SYSTEM
: Colds, ’flu, infections and viruses.

OTHER USES Used in certain tonic and rubefacient preparations. Used for unusual effects in perfumery work; for example, with rose or carnation in oriental or floral fragrances. The oil and oleoresin are used extensively in the food industry, as well as in alcoholic drinks.

Citrus aurantium var. amara

FAMILY Rutaceae

SYNONYMS
C.bigaradia
, petitgrain bigarade (oil), petitgrain Paraguay (oil). See also
bitter orange.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION The oil of petitgrain is produced from the leaves and twigs of the same tree that produces bitter orange oil and orange blossom oil: see
bitter orange
and
orange blossom.

DISTRIBUTION Native to southern China and north east India. The best quality petitgrain oil comes from France but a good quality oil is also produced in North Africa, Paraguay and Haiti from semi-wild trees.

OTHER SPECIES A type of petitgrain is also produced in small quantities from the leaves, twigs and small unripe fruit of the lemon, sweet orange, mandarin and bergamot trees.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION At one time the oil used to be extracted from the green unripe oranges when they were still the size of a cherry – hence the name
petitgrains
or ‘little grains’. One of the classic ingredients of eau-de-cologne.

ACTIONS Antiseptic, antispasmodic, deodorant, digestive, nervine, stimulant (digestive, nervous), stomachic, tonic.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the leaves and twigs. An orange ‘leaf and flower’ water absolute is also produced, known as
petitgrain sur fleurs.

CHARACTERISTICS A pale yellow to amber liquid with a fresh-floral citrus scent and a woody-herbaceous undertone. It blends well with rosemary, lavender, geranium, bergamot, bitter orange, orange blossom, labdanum, oakmoss, clary sage, jasmine, benzoin, palmarosa, clove and balsams.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS 40–80 per cent esters: mainly linalyl acetate and geranyl acetate, as well as linalol, nerol, terpineol, geraniol, nerolidol, farnesol, limonene, among others.

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing, non-phototoxic.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

SKIN CARE
: Acne, excessive perspiration, greasy skin and hair, toning.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
: Dyspepsia, flatulence.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
: Convalescence, insomnia, nervous exhaustion and stress-related conditions.

OTHER USES Extensively used as a fragrance component in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes, especially colognes (sometimes used
to replace orange blossom). Employed as a flavour component in many foods, especially confectionery, as well as alcoholic and soft drinks.

Pinus mugo var. pumilio

FAMILY Pinaceae

SYNONYMS
P. mugo, P. montana, P. pumilio
, mountain pine, Swiss mountain pine, pine needle (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A pyramidal shrub or small tree up to 12 metres high with a black bark, stiff and twisted needles borne in clusters, and brown cones, initially of a bluish hue.

DISTRIBUTION Native to the mountainous regions of central and southern Europe. The oil is mainly produced in Austria (Tirol), Yugoslavia, Denmark and Italy.

OTHER SPECIES There are very many species of pine used to produce essential oil from their needles and wood or employed in the production of turpentine. NB: The so-called huon pine
(Dacrydium franklinii)
, the essential oil of which is also a skin irritant, belongs to a different family, the Podcarpaceae. For further details see
Scotch pine
and the Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION A preparation made from the needles has been used internally for bladder, kidney and rheumatic complaints, as a liniment for rheumatism and muscular pain, and as an inhalant for bronchitis, catarrh, colds, etc.

ACTIONS Analgesic, antimicrobial, antiseptic, antitussive, antiviral, balsamic, diuretic, expectorant, rubefacient.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the needles and twigs.

CHARACTERISTICS A water-white liquid with a very pleasant, balsamic-sweet, spicy-woody scent of good tenacity. This is the favoured pine fragrance for perfumery use due to its unique delicate odour, which blends well with cedarwood, lavandin, rosemary, sage, cananga, labdanum, juniper and other coniferous oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Mainly monoterpene hydrocarbons; limonene, pinenes, phellandrene, dipentene, camphene, myrcene and bornyl acetate among others. The unusual scent is believed to be due to its aldehyde content.

SAFETY DATA Dermal irritant, common sensitizing agent; otherwise non-toxic. It is best avoided therapeutically due to irritant hazards.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE None.

OTHER USES Used as a fragrance and flavour component in pharmaceutical preparations for coughs and colds, nasal congestion and externally in analgesic ointments and liniments. Extensively employed in soaps, bath preparations, toiletries, cosmetics and perfumes, especially ‘leather’ and ‘woody’ type fragrances. It is also used in most major food categories, alcoholic and soft drinks.

Pinus palustris

FAMILY Pinaceae

SYNONYMS Longleaf yellow pine, southern yellow pine, pitch pine, pine (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A tall evergreen tree with long needles and a straight trunk, grown extensively for its timber. It exudes a natural oleoresin from the trunk, which provides the largest source for the production of turpentine in America – see also entry on turpentine.

DISTRIBUTION Native to south eastern USA, where the oil is largely produced.

OTHER SPECIES There are numerous other species of pine all over the world which are used to produce pine oil, as well as pine needle and turpentine oil – see Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Pine sawdust has been used for centuries as a highly esteemed household remedy for a variety of ailments. ‘It is a grand, gentle, although powerful external antiseptic remedy, applied as a poultice in rheumatism when localised, hard cancerous tumours, tuberculosis in the knee or ankle joints, disease of the bone, in short, all sluggish morbid deposits … I have used it behind the head for failing sight, down the spine for general debility, on the loins for lumbago, etc. all with the best results.’
⁷⁵

ACTIONS Analgesic (mild), antirheumatic, antiseptic, bactericidal, expectorant, insecticidal, stimulant.

EXTRACTION The crude oil is obtained by steam distillation from the sawdust and wood chips from the heartwood and roots of the tree (wastage from the timber mills), and then submitted to fractional distillation under atmospheric pressure to produce pine essential oil.

CHARACTERISTICS A water-white or pale yellow liquid with a sweet-balsamic, pinewood scent. It blends well with rosemary, pine needle, cedarwood, citronella, rosewood, ho leaf and oakmoss.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Terpineol, estragole, fenchone, fenchyl alcohol and borneol, among others.

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic; non-irritant (except in concentration); possible sensitization in some individuals.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

CIRCULATION, MUSCLES AND JOINTS
: Arthritis, debility, lumbago, muscular aches and pains, poor circulation, rheumatism, stiffness, etc.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, sinusitis.

OTHER USES Used extensively in medicine, particularly in veterinary antiseptic sprays, disinfectants, detergents and insecticides (as a solvent carrier). Employed as a fragrance component in soaps, toiletries, bath products and perfumes. Also used in paint manufacture although it is increasingly being replaced by synthetic ‘pine oil’.

Pinus sylvestris

FAMILY Pinaceae

SYNONYMS Forest pine, Scots pine, Norway pine, pine needle (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A tall evergreen tree, up to 40 metres high with a flat crown. It has a reddish-brown, deeply fissured bark, long stiff needles which grow in pairs, and pointed brown cones.

DISTRIBUTION Native to Eurasia; cultivated in the eastern USA, Europe, Russia, the Baltic States and Scandinavia, especially Finland.

OTHER SPECIES Like the fir tree, there are numerous species of pine which yield an essential oil from their heartwood as well as from their twigs and needles and are also used to produce turpentine. The oil from the needles of the Scotch pine is one of the most useful and safest therapeutically. Other species which produce pine needle oil include the eastern white pine
(P. strobus)
from the eastern USA and Canada, the dwarf pine
(P. mugo var. pumilio)
grown in central and southern Europe, and the black pine
(P. nigra)
from Austria and Yugoslavia.

Many varieties, such as the longleaf pine
(Pinus palustris)
, are used to produce turpentine. In addition, the oil commonly known as Siberian pine needle oil is actually from the Siberian fir
(Abies sibirica).
See also
dwarf pine
and the Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The young macerated shoots are added to the bath for nervous exhaustion, circulatory disorders, slow, healing wounds, arthritis, rheumatism and skin disorders. It was used by the American Indians to prevent scurvy, and to stuff mattresses to repel lice and fleas.

As an inhalation it helps relieve bronchial catarrh, asthma, blocked sinuses, etc. The pine kernels are said to be excellent restoratives for consumptives, and after long illness.

ACTIONS Antimicrobial, antineuralgic, antirheumatic, antiscorbutic, antiseptic (pulmonary, urinary, hepatic), antiviral, bactericidal, balsamic, cholagogue, choleretic, deodorant, diuretic, expectorant, hypertensive, insecticidal, restorative, rubefacient, stimulant (adrenal cortex, circulatory, nervous), vermifuge.

EXTRACTION 1. Essential oil by dry distillation of the needles. 2. Gum turpentine is produced by steam distillation from the oleoresin: see entry on turpentine. (An inferior essential oil is also produced by dry distillation from the wood chippings, etc.)

CHARACTERISTICS 1. Pine needle oil is a colourless or pale yellow mobile liquid with a strong, dry-balsamic, turpentine-like aroma. It blends well with cedarwood, rosemary, tea tree, sage, lavender, juniper, lemon, niaouli, eucalyptus and marjoram. 2. See entry on turpentine.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS 50–90 per cent monoterpene hydrocarbons: pinenes, carene, dipentene, limonene, terpinenes, myrcene, ocimene, camphene, sabinene; also bornyl acetate, cineol, citral, chamazulene, among others.

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-irritant (except in concentration), possible sensitization. Avoid in allergic skin conditions.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

SKIN CARE
: Cuts, lice, excessive perspiration, scabies, sores.

CIRCULATION, MUSCLES AND JOINTS
: Arthritis, gout, muscular aches and pains, poor circulation, rheumatism.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, coughs, sinusitis, sore throat.

GENITO-URINARY SYSTEM
: Cystitis, urinary infection.

IMMUNE SYSTEM
: Colds, ’flu.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
: Fatigue, nervous exhaustion and stress-related conditions, neuralgia.

OTHER USES Used as a fragrance component in soaps, detergents, cosmetics, toiletries (especially bath products) and, to a limited extent, perfumes. Employed as a flavour ingredient in major food products, alcoholic and soft drinks.

Rosa centifolia

FAMILY Rosaceae

SYNONYMS Rose maroc, French rose, Provence rose, hundred-leaved rose, Moroccan otto of rose (oil), French otto of rose (oil), rose de mai (absolute or concrete).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION The rose which is generally used for oil production is strictly a hybrid between
R. centifolia
, a pink rose, and
R. gallica
, a dark red rose. This variety, known as rose de mai, grows to a height of 2.5 metres and produces an abundance of flowers with large pink or rosy-purple petals. There are two subspecies – one is more spiny than the other.

DISTRIBUTION The birthplace of the cultivated rose is believed to be ancient Persia; now cultivated mainly in Morocco, Tunisia, Italy, France, Yugoslavia and China. The concrete, absolute and oil are mainly produced in Morocco; the absolute in France, Italy and China.

OTHER SPECIES There are over 10,000 types of cultivated rose! There are several subspecies of
R. centifolia
, depending on the country of origin. Other therapeutic species are the red rose or apothecary rose
(R. gallica)
of traditional Western medicine, the oriental or tea rose
(R. indica)
, the Chinese or Japanese rose
(R. rugosa)
and the Turkish or Bulgarian rose
(R. damascena)
which is also extensively cultivated for its oil. Recently rosehip seed oil from
R. rubiginosa
has been found to be a very effective skin treatment; it promotes tissue regeneration and is good for scars, burns and wrinkles. See also entry on damask rose and the Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The healing virtues of the rose have been known since antiquity and although roses are rarely used in herbal practice nowadays, up to the Middle Ages they played an essential part in the materia medica, and still fulfil an important role in Eastern medicine. They were used for a wide range of disorders, including digestive and menstrual problems, headaches and nervous tension, liver congestion, poor circulation, fever (plague), eye infections and skin complaints.

‘The symbolism connected with the rose is perhaps one of the richest and most complex associated with any plant … traditionally associated with Venus, the Goddess of love and beauty, and in our materialistic age the Goddess is certainly alive and well in the cosmetics industry for rose oil (mainly synthetic) is found as a component in 46% of men’s perfumes and 98 % of women’s fragrances.’
⁷⁶

The French or Moroccan rose possesses narcotic properties and has the reputation for being aphrodisiac (more so than the Bulgarian type), possibly due to the high percentage of phenyl ethanol in the former. For further distinctions between the different properties of rose types, see
damask rose.

ACTIONS Antidepressant, antiphlogistic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, anti-tubercular agent, antiviral, aphrodisiac, astringent, bactericidal, choleretic, cicitrisant, depurative, emmenagogue, haemostatic, hepatic, laxative, regulator of appetite, sedative (nervous), stomachic, tonic ( heart, liver, stomach, uterus).

EXTRACTION 1. Essential oil or otto by water or steam distillation from the fresh petals. (Rose water is produced as a byproduct of this process.) 2. Concrete and absolute by solvent extraction from the fresh petals. (A rose leaf absolute is also produced in small quantities in France.)

CHARACTERISTICS 1. The oil is a pale yellow liquid with a deep, sweet, rosy-floral, tenacious odour. 2. The absolute is a reddish-orange viscous liquid with a deep, rich, sweet, rosy-spicy, honeylike fragrance. It blends well with jasmine, cassie, mimosa, orange blossom, geranium, bergamot, lavender, clary sage, sandalwood, guaiacwood, patchouli, benzoin, chamomile, Peru balsam, clove and palmarosa.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS It has over 300 constituents, some in minute traces. Mainly citronellol (18–22 per cent), phenyl ethanol (63 per cent), geraniol and nerol (10–15 per cent), stearopten (8 per cent), farnesol (0.2–2 per cent), among others.

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

SKIN CARE
: Broken capillaries, conjunctivitis (rose water), dry skin, eczema, herpes, mature and sensitive complexions, wrinkles.

CIRCULATION, MUSCLES AND JOINTS
: Palpitations, poor circulation.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
: Asthma, coughs, hay fever.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM:
Cholecystitis, liver congestion, nausea.

GENITO-URINARY SYSTEM
: Irregular menstruation, leucorrhoea, menorrhagia, uterine disorders.

NERVOUS SYSTEM:
Depression, impotence, insomnia, frigidity, headache, nervous tension and stress-related complaints – ‘But the rose procures us one thing above all: a feeling of well being, even of happiness, and the individual under its influence will develop an amiable tolerance.’
⁷⁷

OTHER USES Rose water is used as a household cosmetic and culinary article (especially in Persian cookery). The concrete, absolute and oil are employed extensively in soaps, cosmetics, toiletries and perfumes of all types – floral, oriental, chyprès, etc. Some flavouring uses, especially fruit products and tobacco.

Rosa damascena

FAMILY Rosaceae

SYNONYMS Summer damask rose, Bulgarian rose, Turkish rose (Anatolian rose oil), otto of rose (oil), attar of rose (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION Small prickly shrub between 1 metre and 2 metres high, with pink, very fragrant blooms with thirty-six petals, and whitish hairy leaves. It requires a very specific soil and climate.

DISTRIBUTION Believed to be a native of the Orient, now cultivated mainly in Bulgaria, Turkey and France. Similar types are grown in China, India and Russia; however, India produces only rose water and
aytar
– a mixture of rose otto and sandalwood.

OTHER SPECIES There are many different subspecies: the Turkish variety is known simply as
R. damascena.
‘Trigintipetala’ is the principal cultivar in commercial cultivation, known as the ‘Kazanlik rose’. Bulgaria also grows the white rose
(R. damascena var. alba)
or the musk rose
(R. muscatta)
which is used as a windbreak around the damask rose plantations. See also
cabbage rose
and the Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION ‘The damask rose, on account of its fragrance, belongs to the cephalics; but the next valuable virtue that it possesses consists in its cathartic quality … oil of roses is used by itself to cool hot inflammations or swellings, and to bind and stay fluxes of humours to sores.’
⁷⁸

Rose hips are still current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia, mainly due to their high vitamin C content (also A and B). For further general properties, see entry for cabbage rose.

ACTIONS See
cabbage rose.

EXTRACTION 1. Essential oil or otto by water or steam distillation from the fresh petals. 2. A concrete and absolute by solvent extraction from the fresh petals.

CHARACTERISTICS 1. A pale yellow or olive yellow liquid with a very rich, deep, sweet-floral, slightly spicy scent. 2. The absolute is a reddish-orange or olive viscous liquid with a rich, sweet, spicy-floral, tenacious odour. It blends well with most oils, and is useful for ‘rounding off’ blends. The Bulgarian type is considered superior in perfumery work, but in therapeutic practice it is more a matter of differing properties between the various types of rose.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Mainly citronellol (34–55 per cent), geraniol and nerol (30–40 per cent), stearopten (16–22 per cent), phenyl ethanol (1.5–3 per cent) and farnesol (0.2–2 per cent), with many other trace contituents.

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE See
cabbage rose.

OTHER USES See
cabbage rose.

Rosmarinus officinalis

FAMILY Lamiaceae (Labiatae)

SYNONYMS
R. coronarium
, compass plant, incensier.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A shrubby evergreen bush up to 2 metres high with silvery-green, needle-shaped leaves and pale blue flowers. The whole plant is strongly aromatic.

DISTRIBUTION Native to the Mediterranean region, now cultivated worldwide in California, Russia, Middle East, England, France, Spain, Portugal, Yugoslavia, Morocco, China, etc. The main oil-producing countries are France, Spain and Tunisia.

OTHER SPECIES
R. officinalis
is the type used for oil production but it is generally not specified, although there are many different cultivars, for example pine-scented rosemary
(R. officinalis var. angustifolius).
See also Botanical Classification.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION One of the earliest plants to be used for food, medicine and magic, being regarded as sacred in many
civilizations. Sprigs of rosemary were burnt at shrines in ancient Greece, fumigations were used in the Middle Ages to drive away evil spirits, and to protect against plague and infectious illness.

It has been used for a wide range of complaints including respiratory and circulatory disorders, liver congestion, digestive and nervous complaints, muscular and rheumatic pain, skin and hair problems.

It is current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for ‘depressive states with general debility and indications of cardiovascular weakness’.
⁷⁹

ACTIONS Analgesic, antimicrobial, anti-oxidant, antirheumatic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, astringent, carminative, cephalic, cholagogue, choleretic, cicatrisant, cordial, cytophylactic, diaphoretic, digestive, diuretic, emmenagogue, fungicidal, hepatic, hypertensive, nervine, parasiticide, restorative, rubefacient, stimulant (circulatory, adrenal cortex, hepatobiliary), stomachic, sudorific, tonic (nervous, general), vulnerary.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation of the fresh flowering tops or (in Spain) the whole plant (poorer quality).

CHARACTERISTICS A colourless or pale yellow mobile liquid with a strong, fresh, minty-herbaceous scent and a woody-balsamic undertone. Poor quality oils have a strong camphoraceous note. It blends well with olibanum, lavender, lavandin, citronella, oregano, thyme, pine, basil, peppermint, labdanum, elemi, cedarwood, petitgrain, cinnamon and other spice oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Mainly pinenes, camphene, limonene, cineol, borneol with camphor, linalol, terpineol, octanone, bornyl acetate, among others.

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-irritant (in dilution only), non-sensitizing. Avoid during pregnancy. Not to be used by epileptics.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

SKIN CARE
: Acne, dandruff, dermatitis, eczema, greasy hair, insect repellent, promotes hair growth, regulates seborrhoea, scabies, stimulates scalp, lice, varicose veins.

CIRCULATION, MUSCLES AND JOINTS
: Arteriosclerosis, fluid retention, gout, muscular pain, palpitations, poor circulation, rheumatism.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
: Asthma, bronchitis, whooping cough.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM:
Colitis, dyspepsia, flatulence, hepatic disorders, hypercholesterolaemia, jaundice.

GENITO-URINARY
: Dysmenorrhoea, leucorrhoea.

IMMUNE SYSTEM
: Colds, ’flu, infections.

NERVOUS SYSTEM:
Debility, headaches, hypotension, neuralgia, mental fatigue, nervous exhaustion and stress-related disorders.

OTHER USES Extensively used in soaps, detergents, cosmetics, household sprays and perfumes, especially colognes. Also used as a masking agent. Extensively employed in most major food categories, especially meat products, as well as alcoholic and soft drinks. Serves as a source of natural anti-oxidants.

Aniba rosaeodora

FAMILY Lauraceae

SYNONYMS
A. rosaeodora var. amazonica
, bois de rose, Brazilian rosewood.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION Medium-sized, tropical, evergreen tree with a reddish bark and heartwood, bearing yellow flowers. Used extensively for timber. NB: This is one of the trees that is being extensively felled in the clearing of the South American rainforests; the continual production of rosewood oil is consequently enviromentally damaging.

DISTRIBUTION Native to the Amazon region; Brazil and Peru are the main producers.

OTHER SPECIES There are several species of timber all known as rosewood; however, the essential oil is only distilled from the above species. French Guiana used to produce the cayenne rosewood
(Ocotea caudata)
, which is superior in quality to the Peruvian or Brazilian type.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Used for building, carving and French cabinet making. Nowadays, most rosewood goes to Japan for the production of chopsticks.

ACTIONS Mildly analgesic, anticonvulsant, antidepressant, anti-microbial, antiseptic, aphrodisiac, bactericidal, cellular stimulant, cephalic, deodorant, stimulant (immune system), tissue regenerator, tonic.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation of the wood chippings.

CHARACTERISTICS Colourless to pale yellow liquid with a very sweet, woody-floral fragrance with a spicy hint. Blends well with most oils, especially citrus, woods and florals. It helps give body and rounds off sharp edges.