The Future of the Mind (27 page)

Similarly, language allows you to simulate the future. Animals possess a rudimentary language, but it is mainly in the present tense. Their language may warn them of an immediate threat, such as a predator hiding among the trees. However, animal language apparently has no future or past tense. Animals do not conjugate their verbs. So perhaps the ability to express the past and future tense was a key breakthrough in the development of intelligence.

Dr. Daniel Gilbert, a psychologist at Harvard, writes, “
For the first few hundred million years after their initial appearance on our planet, our brains were stuck in the permanent present, and most brains still are today. But not yours and not mine, because two or three million years ago our ancestors began a great escape from the here and now.…”

THE FUTURE OF EVOLUTION

So far, we have seen that there are intriguing results indicating that one can increase one’s memory and intelligence, largely by making the brain more efficient and maximizing its natural capacity. A variety of methods are being studied, such as certain drugs, genes, or devices (TES, for example) that might increase the capabilities of our neurons.

So the concept of altering the brain size and capacity of the apes is a distinct, though difficult, possibility. Gene therapy on this scale is still many decades away. But this raises another difficult question: How far can this go? Can one extend the intelligence of an organism indefinitely? Or is there a limit to brain modification imposed by the laws of physics?

Surprisingly, the answer is yes. The laws of physics put an upper limit to what can be done with genetic modification of the human brain, given certain restraints. To see this limit, it is instructive to first examine whether evolution is still increasing human intelligence, and then what can be done to accelerate this natural process.

In popular culture, there is the notion that evolution will give us big brains and small, hairless bodies in the future. Likewise, aliens from space, because they are supposed to possess a superior level of intelligence, are often portrayed in this fashion. Go to any novelty shop and you will see
the same extraterrestrial face, with big bug eyes, a huge head, and green skin.

Actually, there are indications that gross human evolution (i.e., our basic body shape and intelligence) has largely come to a halt. There are several factors supporting this. First of all, since we are bipedal mammals who walk upright, there are limitations to the maximum size of an infant’s skull that can pass through the birth canal. Second, the rise of modern technology has removed many of the harsh evolutionary pressures faced by our ancestors.

However, evolution on a genetic and molecular basis continues unabated. Although it’s difficult to see with the naked eye, there is evidence that human biochemistry has changed to adjust to environmental challenges, such as combating malaria in tropical areas. Also, humans recently evolved enzymes to digest lactose sugar as we learned to domesticate cows and drink milk. Mutations have occurred as humans adjusted to a diet created by the agricultural revolution. Moreover, people still choose to mate with others who are healthy and fit, and so evolution continues to eliminate unsuitable genes at this level. None of these mutations, however, has changed our basic body plan or increased our brain size. (Modern technology is also influencing our evolution to some degree. For example, there is no longer any selection pressure on nearsighted people, since anyone today can be outfitted with glasses or contact lenses.)

PHYSICS OF THE BRAIN

So from an evolutionary and biological point of view, evolution is no longer selecting for more intelligent people, at least not as rapidly as it did thousands of years ago.

There are also indications from the laws of physics that we have reached the maximum natural limit of intelligence, so that any enhancement of our intelligence would have to come from external means. Physicists who have studied the neurology of the brain conclude that there are trade-offs preventing us from getting much smarter. Every time we envision a brain that is larger, or denser, or more complex, we bump up against these negative trade-offs.

The first principle of physics that we can apply to the brain is the conservation of matter and energy; that is, the law stating that the total amount of matter and energy in a system remains constant. In particular, in order
to carry out its incredible feats of mental gymnastics, the brain has to conserve energy, and hence it takes many shortcuts. As we saw in
Chapter 1
, what we see with our eyes is actually cobbled together using energy-saving tricks. It would take too much time and energy for a thoughtful analysis of every crisis, so the brain saves energy by making snap judgments in the form of emotions. Forgetting is an alternative way of saving energy. The conscious brain has access to only a tiny portion of the memories that have an impact on the brain.

So the question is: Would increased brain size or density of neurons give us more intelligence?

Probably not. “
Cortical gray matter neurons are working with axons that are pretty close to the physical limit,” says Dr. Simon Laughlin of Cambridge University. There are several ways in which one can increase the intelligence of the brain using the laws of physics, but each has its own problems:

•  One can increase brain size and extend the length of neurons. The problem here is that the brain now consumes more energy. This generates more heat in the process, which is detrimental to our survival. If the brain uses up more energy, it gets hotter, and tissue damage results if the body temperature becomes too high. (The chemical reactions of the human body and our metabolism require temperatures to be in a precise range.) Also, longer neurons means that it takes longer for signals to go across the brain, which slows down the thinking process.

•  One can pack more neurons into the same space by making them thinner. But if neurons become thinner and thinner, the complex chemical/electrical reactions that must take place inside the axons fail, and eventually they begin to misfire more easily. Douglas Fox, writing in
Scientific American
, says, “
You might call it the mother of all limitations: the proteins that neurons use to generate electrical pulses, called ion channels, are inherently unstable.”

•  One can increase the speed of the signal by making the neurons thicker. But this also increases energy consumption and generates more heat. It also increases the size of the brain, which increases the time it takes for the signals to reach their destination.

•  One can add more connections between neurons. But this again increases energy consumption and heat generation, making the brain larger and slower in the process.

So each time we tinker with the brain, we are checkmated. The laws of physics seem to indicate that we have maxed out the intelligence that we humans can attain in this way. Unless we can suddenly increase the size of our skulls or the very nature of neurons in our brains, it seems we are at the maximum level of intelligence. If we are to increase our intelligence, it has to be done by making our brains more efficient (via drugs, genes, and possibly TES-type machines).

PARTING THOUGHTS

In summary, it may be possible in the coming decades to use a combination of gene therapy, drugs, and magnetic devices to increase our intelligence. There are several avenues of exploration that are revealing the secrets of intelligence and how it may be modified or enhanced. But what would it do to society, though, if we could enhance our intelligence and get a “brain boost”? Ethicists have seriously contemplated this question, since the basic science is growing so rapidly. The big fear is that society may bifurcate, with only the rich and powerful having access to this technology, which they could use to further solidify their exalted position in society. Meanwhile, the poor won’t have access to additional brain power, making it more difficult to move up in society.

This is certainly a valid concern, but it flies in the face of the history of technology. Many of the technologies of the past were indeed initially the province of the rich and powerful, but eventually mass production, competition, better transportation, and improvements in technology drove down the costs, so the average person could afford them. (For example, we take for granted that we eat foods for breakfast that the king of England could not have procured a century ago. Technology has made it possible to purchase delicacies from around the world at any supermarket that would be the envy of the aristocrats of the Victorian era.) So if it becomes possible to increase our intelligence, the price of this technology will gradually fall. Technology is never the monopoly of the privileged rich. Sooner or later ingenuity, hard work, and simple market forces will drive down its cost.

There is also the fear that the human race will split into those who want their intelligence to be boosted and those who prefer to remain the same, resulting in the nightmare of having a class of super-intelligent brahmins lord over the masses of the less gifted.

But again, perhaps the fear of boosting intelligence has been exaggerated. The average person has absolutely no interest in being able to solve the complex tensor equations for a black hole. The average person sees nothing to gain by mastering the mathematics of hyperspatial dimensions or the physics of the quantum theory. On the contrary, the average person may find such activities rather boring and useless. So most of us are not going to become mathematical geniuses if given the opportunity, because it is not in our character, and we see nothing to gain from it.

Keep in mind that society already has a class of accomplished mathematicians and physicists, and they are paid significantly less than ordinary businessmen and wield much less power than average politicians. Being super smart does not guarantee financial success in life. In fact, being super smart may actually pigeonhole you in the lower rungs of a society that values athletes, movie stars, comedians, and entertainers more.

No one ever got rich doing relativity.

Also, a lot depends on precisely which traits are enhanced. There are other forms of intelligence besides using mathematics. (Some argue that intelligence must include artistic genius as well. In this case, one can conceivably use this talent to make a comfortable living.)

Anxious parents of high school children may want to boost the IQ of their kids as they prepare for standardized exams. But IQ, as we have seen, does not necessarily correspond to success in life. Likewise, people may want to enhance their memory, but, as we have seen with savants, having a photographic memory can be a blessing as well as a curse. And in both cases, enhancement is unlikely to contribute to a society splitting in two.

Society as a whole, however, may benefit from this technology. Workers with an enhanced intelligence would be better prepared to face an ever-changing job market. Retraining workers for the jobs of the future would be less of a drain on society. Furthermore, the public will be able to make informed decisions about major technological issues of the future (e.g., climate change, nuclear energy, space exploration) because they will grasp these complex issues better.

Also, this technology may help even out the playing field. Children today who go to exclusive private schools and have personal tutors are better prepared for the job market because they have more opportunities to master difficult materials. But if everyone has had their intelligence enhanced, the fault lines within society will be evened out. Then how far someone goes
in life would be more related to their drive, ambition, imagination, and resourcefulness rather than to being born with a silver spoon in their mouth.

In addition, raising our intelligence may help speed up technological innovation. Increased intelligence would mean a greater ability to simulate the future, which would be invaluable in making scientific discoveries. Often, science stagnates in certain areas because of a lack of fresh new ideas to stimulate new avenues of research. Having an ability to simulate different possible futures would vastly increase the rate of scientific breakthroughs.

These scientific discoveries, in turn, could generate new industries, which could enrich all of society, creating new markets, new jobs, and new opportunities. History is full of technological breakthroughs creating entirely new industries that benefited not just the few, but all of society (think of the transistor and the laser, which today form the foundation of the world economy).

However, in science fiction, there is the recurring theme of the super criminal, who uses his superior brain power to embark on a crime spree and thwart the superhero. Every Superman has his Lex Luthor, every Spider-Man has his Green Goblin. Although it is certainly possible that a criminal mind will use a brain booster to create super weapons and plan the crime of the century, realize that members of the police force can also have their intelligence boosted to outwit the evil mastermind. So super criminals are dangerous only if they are the only ones in possession of enhanced intelligence.

So far, we have examined the possibility that we can enhance or alter our mental capabilities via telepathy, telekinesis, uploading memories, or brain boosts. Such enhancement basically means modifying and augmenting the mental capabilities of our consciousness. This tacitly assumes that our normal consciousness is the only one, but I’d like to explore whether there are different forms of consciousness. If so, there could be other ways of thinking that lead to totally different outcomes and consequences. Within our own thoughts, there are altered states of consciousness, such as dreams, drug-induced hallucinations, and mental illness. There is also nonhuman consciousness, the consciousness of robots, and even that of aliens from outer space. We have to give up the chauvinistic notion that our human consciousness is the only one. There is more than one way to create a model of our world, and more than one way to simulate its future.

Dreams, for example, are one of the most ancient forms of consciousness
and were studied by the ancients, yet very little progress has been made in understanding them until recently. Perhaps dreams are not silly, random events spliced together by the sleeping brain but phenomena that may give insight into the meaning of consciousness. Dreams may be a key to understanding altered states of consciousness.