The Great Fire (47 page)

G
reece awarded Asa Jennings its highest military and civilian awards, and in the years that followed, he returned to Turkey embarked on a new project, the American Friends of Turkey, an organization whose mission was to create child-care clinics, sports clubs, and libraries in Turkey. It attracted financial support from American businessmen and put him in Bristol’s favor, but it faltered during the Depression and ceased operating. An American policy of engagement with the Turkish Republic divided the missionary community, many of whose members saw the Turkish Republic as a bloody regime that ought to be shunned by the United States. Jennings was not among them, and he developed a close relationship with Turkish officials, including Kemal. It also brought him together with Mark Bristol, who was among the strongest advocates of American engagement with the Republic of Turkey. In 1933, on a visit to Washington to confer with Turkish authorities and after having spent the night as a guest of the Bristols, Jennings was stricken while walking near the White House and died on the way to the hospital. His weak heart had finally stopped working. Widowed, Amy made her home in Winter Park, Florida, until her death in 1970. Asa’s oldest son, Asa Will, became a lawyer and handled legal work for the Turkish government.

After returning to Washington, Halsey Powell was transferred to Peking as a naval attaché and then assigned to command the USS
Pittsburgh
. He drew admirers in all his postings for his quiet and reliable competence. In 1936, President Franklin Roosevelt approved his nomination to the rank of rear admiral, but days before the promotion was granted, Powell died of a heart attack in Washington at age fifty-three.
He had continued to list Kentucky as his home address. He is buried in Arlington National Cemetery. In 1943, the U.S. Navy launched the USS
Halsey Powell,
a destroyer. The ship and its men served with distinction during World War II.

Mark Bristol served in Turkey until 1927. He was then sent to China to take command of the Asiatic Fleet. After two years, he returned to Washington and retired in 1932, serving as chairman of the Navy Board. He died at age seventy-one in 1939. The navy named two destroyers for Bristol during World War II. Bristol is remembered fondly in Turkey. Helen Bristol, ever the industrious woman, opened a business selling baked hams from her home in Washington. She died in 1945.

Dr. Hatcherian and his family traveled on board the refugee ship to Mytilene. The family stayed there for seven months, during which time Dr. Hatcherian provided medical care to other refugees. In April 1923, the Hatcherians moved to Salonika, and Dr. Hatcherian became director of the Armenian hospital there. His granddaughter, Dora Sakayan, who brought his diary to the world through its publication, was born in Salonika. In the 1950s, the Hatcherians moved to Buenos Aires, where Dr. Hatcherian died in 1952.

Theodora Gravou and her sisters also went to Salonika but were soon taken to Athens. Theodora was placed as a servant in a home in Athens, and her two sisters were put into the Amalion Orphanage. Theodora eventually married George Kontos, also from the Smyrna region, and together they raised a family in an apartment in a Piraeus neighborhood with many other Anatolian refugees until their deaths. Her daughter, Eleni, eighty-four, was still living in the apartment in 2012.

Mustapha Kemal married Latife Hanum in 1923, but the marriage lasted only two years. He became Turkey’s first president and served from 1923 to 1938, introducing sweeping reforms to nearly all aspects of Turkish society. He sought to modernize and secularize the country, greatly reducing the role of Islam in the affairs of government. He took the name Atatürk, “Father of the Turks” and transformed the nation in countless ways and set it on a path of independence and national pride. He died in 1938. He remains a hero in Turkey.

Arthur J. Hepburn rose to the rank of admiral and served as chief of
Naval Intelligence and commander in chief of the fleet. In the 1930s, with the prospect of war looming for the United States, President Roosevelt gave Hepburn the job of reviewing American defenses. When World War II came, he served as chairman of the Navy Board. He died in 1964 in a Washington nursing home.

IN JANUARY 1923
, Greece and Turkey agreed to an exchange of populations—Christians would be required to leave Turkey, and Moslems would be required to leave Greece. It was an internationally sanctioned forced transfer of people. The agreement carved out minor exceptions for Greeks in Constantinople and Moslems in western Thrace. About one and a half million Greeks departed Turkey, and about a half million Moslems left Greece. Later in 1923, the Allies and Turkey signed the Treaty of Lausanne, which officially ended World War I. It also affirmed the existence of a new nation, the Republic of Turkey.

The United States and Turkey negotiated a separate treaty of amity and commerce in 1923. Powerful opposition to the treaty arose in the United States among religious leaders and prominent Americans such as Henry Morgenthau. Despite a State Department campaign with Dulles at the point to win the treaty’s approval, the Senate defeated the treaty. A new president, Calvin Coolidge, decided not to resubmit the treaty and established diplomatic relations with Turkey by executive authority. In 1929, with Herbert Hoover as president, a new version of the treaty was submitted, and the Senate accepted it. In the years that followed, Turkey and the United States developed a close relationship, and following World War II, Turkey joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization and became a key strategic ally of the United States on the Soviet Union’s southwestern flank.

The regard with which the United States is now held in the Middle East is beyond the scope of this book. It is of course a long and complicated story. Suffice it to say that the United States became more deeply immersed in the region’s politics and feuds as it sought to ensure its access to the region’s oil.

The Turkish government continues to reject the term “genocide” as a description of what happened to the Armenians, Greeks, and Assyrians, though its position has softened in recent years. It now acknowledges that many people died as a result of the deportations. In speaking of the Armenian deaths, President Obama, mindful of the potential damage to US-Turkish relations, has avoided use of the word
genocide
. He has referred instead to
Metz Eghern,
the Armenian phrase for the Great Catastrophe.

Today, Christians are mostly absent from Anatolia. Smyrna was rebuilt as Izmir in the 1950s. It is a gleaming glass and concrete city of four million people. Cafés and restaurants line the Quay, but very few if any of the well-dressed patrons on the harborfront know the story of what happened there in September 1922.

I first encountered the story of Smyrna thirty-five years ago in Marjorie Housepian’s important book,
The Smyrna Affair
. Asa Jennings made a brief appearance in her story, and it set me wondering about this man who seemed a forgotten hero. I only got around to seriously researching his achievement in 2010. The work took me to Turkey and Greece five times. I walked the Izmir Quay with an old map in search of the few buildings that were not destroyed by the fire and flipped through pages of old newspapers at the Izmir Municipal Archives. I also traveled to Theodora Gravou’s village, dipped my hands in the Sakaria River, climbed to the top of Kocetepe, and walked the battlefield at Dumlupinar with the guidance of a friendly and helpful Turkish army officer. In Greece, I spent days at the Asia Minor Research Center in Athens, met descendants of Smyrna survivors, and combed the backstreets of Piraeus to find Theodora’s daughter. In the United States, I traveled to Asa Jennings’s home and pastorates in upstate New York, dug deep into the rich files of the Library of Congress, the National Archives, and the YMCA archives. Along the way, countless people helped me in my work. This book would not have been possible without them.

Among the many people who guided me along the way are these: Roger Jennings, Asa’s grandson, who shared family papers and photos, patiently answered innumerable questions, and took me to Asa’s birthplace; George Poulimenos and Achillias Chatziconstantinou, two Athenians who have done deep and original research into the cityscape of old Smyrna and repeatedly answered my questions about the streets, buildings, and families of Smyrna; Professor Sevda Alankus, who warmly welcomed me to Izmir and connected me to the city’s historians and
translated documents and book passages that would otherwise have been inaccessible to me; Professor Ahmet Can Ozcan, whose good humor and knowledge of the city and region was both a delight and a gift; and David and Miriam Levi, who guided me through Izmir and explained its Jewish past.

Nancy Horton, the daughter of George Horton, gave me many afternoons in her Voula apartment as we talked of her father and Smyrna. Sadly, the grandson of Captain Theophanides, Ioannis Theophanides (himself a retired admiral), passed away during the book’s preparation. Always generous and gentlemanly, Admiral Theophanides spent many hours with me and provided useful documents. Professor Thanos Vermis of the Hellenic Foundation for European & Foreign Policy in Athens helped me understand the rise of nationalism in the Balkans and Turkey. Professor Nikos Leandros and his wife, Maria, invited to stay in their home in Athens as I pursued my research, and Professor Nikos Bakounakis and his wife, Maria, also welcomed me in their home and provided guidance and encouragment. Kika Kyriakakou helped with translation and many other tasks in Athens, as did Katerina Voutsina, who led our search for Theodora’s daughter. Others who helped with translation, from Greek, Turkish, and French, were Petros Kasfikis, Adamantia Pattakou, Gökser Gökçay, Serkan Savk, and Rejean Lebel. Professors Robert Shenk and Paul Halpern offered expert research guidance, and Professor Shenk read the manuscript for errors. (If there are any, they are mine, not his.) Others who provided invaluable guidance were Professors Simon Payaslian, Pelin Boke, Jonathan Winkler, Halil Berktay, Michail Psalidopoulos, Michaelis Meismaris, Klaus Kreiser, Hakan Özoðlu, Elizabeth Prodromou, Alexandros Kyrou, the Reverend Robert Hill, and Erik Goldstein.

Among the early and helpful readers of the manuscript were David Kallas, Elizabeth and Nigel Savage, Adam Ureneck, Dan Mariaschin, Michael D’Antonio, and Irving Rimer.

Librarians and archivists often went to great lengths to help me. First among them is Vita Paladino of the Howard Gotleib Archival Research Center at Boston University. Also: the staff at the Asia Minor Research Center; Valerie S. Ellis at the Mobile Public Library; Jeffrey Monseau at
Springfield College; Rhoda Bilansky at BU’s Mugar Library who tracked down many rare books for me; the staffs at the Izmir Muncipal Archives, the Nea Smyrni Library in Athens, and the Gennadius Library at The American School for Classical Studies in Athens; Amanda Pike at the Mudd Manuscipt Library at Princeton; Jamie Serran, Archivist at the Yarmouth County Museum & Archives, Nova Scotia; Stratis Karamanis and Efthalia Tourli of the Refugees of Asia Minor Museum in Skala Loutron, a tiny village on Lesbos inhabitated by surivivors of the Smyrna fire and their descendants; Robert Hitchings, formerly of the Norfolk Public Library, and Lynn Sullivan of the Omaha Public Library. Also: Theresa Roy, Kirsten Carter, and Rodney Ross at the National Archives, and Rosemary Hanes at the Library of Congress; Barbara Price of the Gloucester Count Historical Society; Candace Bundgard of the Natchez Historical Society; Heather Home, Queen’s University Archives; Nat Wilson, Carleton College Library; Christopher Carter, Amistad Research Center; Nancy Adgent of the Rockefeller Archive Center; Robert Smith, Navy Memorial Library; Mary M. O’Brien, archivist at Syracuse University Archives; David D’Onofrio of the U.S. Naval Academy; and Ryan Bean of the Kautz Family Archives.

I must single out Amalie Preston of Harrodsburg, Kentucky, for her persistence in tracking down the papers of Halsey Powell. They added immeasurably to my understanding of the man.

I would like to thank also for their valuable assistance and support: Elias Papadopoulos, Ray Alcala, William Skocpol, John Makrides, Maria Ilou, Joe Nocera, Lee Tstinis, Ümit Kurt, Evgen Titov, Julie Norman, Tom Mullins, Steve and Ann Marie Pitkin, Rev. Carl E. Getz, Rev. James E. Barnes II, Jonathan Powell, Giorgos Dimitrakopoulos, Rifat Bali, Don Kehn Jr., Chrysovalentis Stamelos, and Katerina Titova for her prayers and lighted candles. I fear that I have left off someone important from this list: I apologize for the oversight in advance.

I had the assistance of hardworking graduate students over the long course of the research: Chen Shen; Emma Dong; Shang Jing Li; Kasha Patel; Siutan Wong, Gabriella Kashtelian; Siu Tan Wong; and Sara Bost. I want to also thank Boston University, Dean Tom Fiedler, and colleagues Mitchell Zuckoff, Richard Lehr, and Bob Zelnick for their
support. Hilary Redmon, my editor, saw the story’s potential from the beginning and made valuable suggestions along the way. I also want to thank Emma Janaskie and Laurie McGee for their skills and careful attention to the book’s production. The support of my brother, Paul, never flags, and Irene, my wife, has been patient and supportive beyond measure. This book is dedicated to her. Finally, I must thank Jill Kneerim, my agent. Her wisdom, encouragement, steadiness, and skill were crucial in turning an aspiration into a book.

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ABBREVIATIONS

ABCFM American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions

AKJP Asa Jennings Papers

ARC Amistad Research Center

ARI American Research Institute (Istanbul)

ASMP Aaron Stanton Merrill Papers

BWD Bristol War Diary

CLP Caleb Lawrence Papers

GHP George Horton Papers

KFYA Kautz Family YMCA Archives

MLB Mark Bristol Papers

NA National Archives

NER Near East Relief

NPRC National Personnel Records Center

RAC Rockefeller Archive Center

STANAV American High Commissioner in Constantinople

PROLOGUE

     
1
    
Smyrna was burning
Details of the fire and the evacuation from Arthur J. Hepburn, “Smyrna Disaster; Report On,” Sept. 25, 1922. Record Group 45, Naval Records Collection, NA. There are several American and British eyewitness accounts of the first night of fire. Among the most vivid are the dispatch by Ward Price in the
London Daily Mail,
September 16, 1922, and “Smyrna and After, Part III,”
Naval Review,
publication of the Naval Society, London, Vol. 1, 1924. A moving description of the fire, based on primary sources, appears in Philip Mansel,
Levant: Splendour
and Catastrophe on the Mediterranean
(London: John Murray, 2010), 215, 216.

     
1
    
It would also serve as
The Ottoman Empire did not officially end until 1923 with the signing of the Treaty of Lausanne, which brought a formal end to World War I and affirmed Allied recognition of the Republic of Turkey, but the military victories that led to the occupation of Smyrna made it clear that the future of Turkey was with the Turkish nationalists under the aegis of the Grand National Assembly and its leader, Mustapha Kemal. The defeat of the army of Greece and occupation of Smyrna was the event that clarified the country’s future.

     
4
    
Hepburn, a veteran officer
Hepburn’s conflict with Horton is described in Hepburn, “Smyrna Disaster,” 20, and Aaron S. Merrill Diary, Sept. 11, 1922, “Diaries of Lieutenant A. S. Merrill,” Box 7, Folder 62, Louis Round Wilson Special Collections Library, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.

     
5
    
There was also one American
Asa Kent Jennings, “Report for Mrs. Emmons Blaine of Work Accomplished at Smyrna, Turkey,” March 1, 1928, Asa K. Jennings File, 1922–1928, KFYA.

     
5
    
Several hours earlier, Jennings
“Mrs. Jennings Relates Tale of Horrors,”
Syracuse Journal,
Oct. 27, 1922.

     
6
    
Before it burned itself out
Vice Consul Maynard Barnes to State Dept., Nov. 22, 1922, NA 767.68/463.

CHAPTER 1: END OF AN EMPIRE

     
9
    
Decades after
For a discussion of Raphael Lemkin’s work on the genocide of the Greeks, see Leonard Jacobs’s “Genocide of Others: Ralph Leminkin, the Genocide of the Greeks, the Holocaust and the Present Moment,” in Tessa Hofmann, Matthias Bjørnlund, and Vasileios Meichanetsidis,
The Genocide of the Ottoman Greeks—Studies on the State-Sponsored Campaign of Extermination of the Christians of Asia Minor, 1912–1922 and Its Aftermath: History, Law, Memory
(New York: Aristide D. Caratzas, 2011). Also, Samantha Power,
A Problem from Hell: America in the Age of Genocide
(New York: Basic Books, 2002), 17–30, 40–35.

     
9
    
“The aim of war is not . . .”
Adolf Hitler’s “Obersalzburg Speech,” August 22, 1939, Modern History Sourcebook, Fordham University, http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/hitler-obersalzberg.asp. The Nazi fascination
with Turkish nationalism, Mustapha Kemal, and the slaughter of the Armenians is examined in Stefan Ihrig’s
Ataturk in the Nazi Imagination
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014).

     
9
    
The Armenians, an ancient people
The Armenian genocide has been described and discussed by scholars in numerous works including these: Power,
A Problem from Hell
; Richard G. Hovannisian, ed.,
The Armenian Genocide: History, Politics, Ethics
(New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1986); Richard G. Hovannisian, ed.,
Remembrance and Denial: The Case of the Armenian Genocide
(Detroit, MI: Wayne State University, 1998); Taner Akçam,
A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility
(New York: Metropolitan, 2006); Taner Akçam,
From Empire to Republic: Turkish Nationalism and the Armenian Genocide
(London: Zed, 2004); Vahakn N. Dadrian, “The Documentation of the World War I Armenian Massacres in the Proceedings of the Turkish Military Tribunal,”
International Journal of Middle East Studies
23, no. 4 (Nov. 1991); Mark Levene, “Why Is the Twentieth Century the Century of Genocide?”
Journal of World History
11, no. 2 (Fall 2000); Andrew Bell-Fialkoff, “Brief History of Ethnic Cleansing,”
Foreign Affairs
72 (Summer 1993).

   
10
    
The deportations and executions
Tessa Hofmann, “The Massacres and Deportations of the Greek Population on the Ottoman Empire (1912–1923),” in Hofmann et al.,
Genocide of the Ottoman Greeks,
35–108; Michelle Tusan,
Smyrna’s Ashes: Humanitarianism, Genocide and the Birth of the Middle East
(Oakland, CA: University of California Press, 2012), 145, 207.

   
10
    
Up until the early twentieth century
A scholarly and sympathetic history of the late Ottoman Empire can be found in Bernard Lewis,
The Emergence of Modern Turkey
(London, NY: Oxford University Press, 1961).

   
11
    
In secret, and beginning with the Treaty of London
The Treaty of London in 1915 was signed between the Entente Powers (Britain, France, and Russia) and Italy to bring Italy into the war against Germany and Austria-Hungary. Italy was promised the Dodecanese Islands, parts of southern Turkey, and other lands. The Sykes-Picot Agreement between Britain and France (with Russian assent) divided the Arab lands of the Ottoman Empire between Britain and France and assigned Constantinople and eastern sections of Anatolia to Russia. In 1915, the British offered
Greece territory in western Anatolia (Smyrna) to gain its entrance into the war. See Michael Llewellyn Smith,
Ionian Vision: Greece in Asia Minor, 1919–1922
(New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1973), 35; and Laurence Evans,
United States Policy and the Partition of Turkey, 1914–1924
(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins, 1965), 49–87.

   
11
    
After the war ended
Evans,
United States Policy,
89–107.

   
12
    
It was unclear how Wilson’s vision
Simon Payaslian,
United States Policy toward the Armenian Question and the Armenian Genocide
(New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), 135–136.

   
12
    
Four months into the Paris talks
Smith,
Ionian Vision,
68–88.

   
13
    
The Greeks and the Turks were old enemies
Alexis Heraclides, “The Essence of the Greek-Turkish Rivalry: National Narrative and Identity,”
Hellenic Observatory Papers on Greece and Southeast Europe, London School of Economics,
2011; David Brewer,
Greece, the Hidden Centuries: Turkish Rule from the Fall of Constantinople to Greek Independence
(London: I. B. Tauris, 2010).

   
14
    
Poorly disciplined and led
Victoria Solomonidis, “Greece in Asia Minor: The Greek Administration of the Vilayet of Aidin, 1919–1922.” Ph.D. diss., University of London, 1984, 55.

   
14
    
So hostile was
“Smyrna and After, Part I,”
Naval Review,
publication of the Naval Society, London, vol. XI, no. 3, 1923. For an explanation of clashing nationalisms: Resat Kasaba,
Greek and Turkish Nationalism in Formation: Western Anatolia 1919–1922,
Mediterranean Program Series, European University Institute.

   
14
    
The stiff Allied-imposed armistice
Halide Edib,
The Turkish Ordeal
(Westport, CT: Hyperion Press, 1928), see especially Part I, “In Istamboul.”

   
14
    
“
Remember Smyrna
” Robert Dunn,
World Alive: A Personal Story
(New York: Crown Publishers, 1956).

   
14
    
Quietly, the United States
Evans,
United States Policy,
236–268.

   
14
    
The Europeans went ahead
Evans,
United States Policy,
269–290.

   
15
    
“Two thirds of the Greek deportees . . .”
Major F. D. Yowell, Near East Relief. See letter to Consul Jesse P. Jackson, at Aleppo, April 5, 1922, NA 867.4016/454. Also, supplementary report to the secretary of state, received July 14, 1922. NA 867.3016/575. John Clayton, “Deportations in Asia Minor,” unpublished report for the
Chicago Tribune,
sent as a cable by Jesse Jackson, American consul in Aleppo, to State Department, July
25, 1922. NA867.4016/618. “Over the mountains south of Harput winds a long road from Diarbekir to Nissibin and the desert. It is a road to Calvary. Along its course, mile after mile are strewn the graves where sleep thousands of Greek exiles. Graves that were first barely scratched in the snow; graves which often contain only the bones from which the vultures have feasted.”

   
16
    
Greece prepared for a unilateral withdrawal
Solomonides, 103.

   
16
    
Soon, Greece’s only real ally, Britain
There are numerous turns in the story of Greece’s military campaign in Asia Minor. Venizelos, whose presence at the Paris peace talks had opened the way for the Greek army’s landing at Smyrna, had come to power as prime minister in Greece in 1910. Under his leadership, and through the Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913, Greece greatly expanded its territory. But with the coming of World War I, a split opened between Greece’s King Constantine and Venizelos over Greece’s role in the big war. Venizelos sought to join the Entente Powers, but the king tilted toward Germany and neutrality. The king dismissed Venizelos, who ultimately formed a provisional government in Salonika with the backing of Britain and France, and Constantine was forced to abdicate in favor of his son Alexander. After the war, Greece remained bitterly divided between the supporters of Venizelos and the monarchy. In 1920, while Greece was engaged in its war with Turkish nationalists in Asia Minor, young King Alexander died from the bite of a pet monkey, triggering a political crisis that led to elections and the shocking defeat of Venizelos. Then, in a moment of self-destructive pique, Greek voters recalled Constantine to Athens as king, creating a backlash among the Allies who despised him for his pro-German attitude before World War I. With Greece’s military fortunes flagging in Turkey, the return of Constantine alienated Britain, which already was having second thoughts about Greece’s ability to prevail in the war. Lloyd George continued to make stirring speeches in favor of Greece right up to the very end, and even after the end, but he was unable to deliver the men or materiel that would have made a difference in the outcome. This is covered masterfully in Smith’s
Ionian Vision.
For an inside view of the destructive military ramifications of the Greek political shift, see the book by Prince Andrew of Greece,
Towards Disaster—The Greek Army in Asia Minor in 1921
(London: John Murray, 1930). Prince
Andrew was Constantine’s brother, and he fought with the Greek army at the Battle of Sakaria. He was father to the current Prince Phillip, husband to Queen Elizabeth II. See also: “Morale of the Greek Army,” G-2 Report, STANAV, Sept. 11, 1922, No. 517. MLB.

CHAPTER 2: AN INNOCENT ARRIVES

   
18
    
In mid-August 1922
Jennings’s biographical details come from a variety of sources: personnel records of the YMCA at KFYA; correspondence of his wife, Amy Jennings, AKJP; Syracuse University Archives; a biographical file including the correspondence of colleagues assembled by MGM Pictures for the making of a short movie about Jennings in the 1940s, which is now in the possession of Turner Properties, Atlanta, Georgia; the records of the Trenton (NY) United Methodist Church; and the archives of the Northern New York Conference of the United Methodist Church.

   
19
    
Jennings’s assignment in Smyrna
Asa Jennings to Darius Davis, April 8, 1923. KFYA.

   
19
    
The YMCA director in Smyrna
E. O. Jacob was running the Smyrna YMCA. Jennings had been sent on a short-term contract; Jacob made it clear in a confidential report to higher-ups that he wanted a different person who would work on a longer-term contract. “Administrative Report, Smyrna Young Men’s Christian Association,” July 1922. KFYA.

   
19
    
“Jennings has a most attractive personality”
Darius. A. Davis to E. O. Jacob, March 29, 1922. KFYA.

   
19
    
“I do not despair . . .”
Asa Jennings to his son Asa, June 26, 1924, AJKP.

   
21
    
Jennings, then twenty-seven years old
The fullest description of Jennings’s medical history appears in a letter written Nov. 25, 1942, by his wife, Amy, to William Schneider of St. Louis, Missouri, who had inquired admiringly about Jennings’s achievements. KFYA.