The Great Fire (59 page)

Levene, Mark. “Why Is the Twentieth Century the Century of Genocide?”
Journal of World History
11, no. 2 (2000): 305–36.

Lippe, John M Vander. “The ‘Other’ Treaty of Lausanne: The American Public and Official Debate on Turkish–American Relations.”
Turkish Yearbook of International Relations
23 (1993): 65–78.

Lowry, Heath. “Turkish History: On Whose Sources Will It Be Based? A Case Study on the Burning of Izmir.”
Journal of Ottoman Studies
IX (1989): 1–27.

Marvin, George. “The Greek Military Debacle.” Asia The American Magazine on the Orient (Dec. 1922) 957, 1006.

Neyzi, Leyla. “Remembering Smyrna/Izmir: Shared History, Shared Trauma.”
History and Memory
20, no. 2, Special Issue:
Remembering and Forgetting on Europe’s Southern Periphery
(October 1, 2008): 106–27.

Obenzinger, Hilton. “Holy Land Narrative and American Covenant: Levi Parsons, Pliny Fisk and the Palestine Mission.”
Religion & Literature
35, no. 2/3 (July 1, 2003): 241–67.

“Petroleum and Sea Power.” American Oil & Gas History. http://aoghs.org/petroleum-in-war/petroleum-and-sea-power/.

Prentiss, Mark O. “No Experience Necessary.”
The Magazine of Business
37 (1920): 494–96.

Reed, Cass A. “After the War in Smyrna.”
The Missionary Herald at Home and Abroad
115 (May 1919): 186–87.

Santiago, M. “Culture Clash: Foreign Oil and Indigenous People in Northern Veracruz, Mexico, 1900–1921.”
Journal of American History
99, no. 1 (June 22, 2012): 62–71. doi:10.1093/jahist/jas114.

Smith, George Otis. “Where the World Gets Its Oil but Where Will Our Children Get It When American Wells Cease to Flow?”
National Geographic Magazine,
February 1920, 181–202.

“Smyrna.”
The Orient
9.10 (1922): 88–94.

“Smyrna and After, Part I,”
Naval Review,
Naval Society, London, 1923, Vol. 3, 358.

“Smyrna and After, Part II,”
Naval Review,
Naval Society, London, 1923, Vol. 4, 737.

“Smyrna and After, Part III,”
Naval Review,
Naval Society, London, 1924, Vol. 1, 157.

“Smyrna and After, Part IV, V,”
Naval Review,
Naval Society, London, 1924, Vol. 2, 355.

“Smyrna and the Dardanelles,”
Naval Review,
Naval Society, London, 1935, Vol. 3, 467.

“Smyrna Under the Greco-Turkish Terror.” Literary Digest, New York. Oct. 28, 1922.

Smyrnelis, Marie-Carmen, ed. Smyrne, La Ville Oubliée? 1830–1930: Mémoires D’un Grand Port Ottoman, Collection Mémoires/Villes (Paris:
Éditions Autrement, 2006), p. 252.
International Journal of Middle East Studies
41, no. 1 (February 2009): 133–36.

Sorkhabi, Rasoul, Ph.D. “The Centenary of the First Oil Well in the Middle East.”
GEO ExPro Magazine
Vol. 5, no. 5 (2008).

Stivers, William. “International Politics and Iraqi Oil, 1918–1928: A Study in Anglo-American Diplomacy.”
Business History Review
55, no. 4 (1981): 517.

“The ‘Angel of Discord’ at Smyrna.”
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, October 7, 1922, 32–34.

“The Genocide of the Ottoman Greeks: 1914-1923,” Center for the Study of Genocide and Human Rights, Rutgers University (Newark), http://www.ncas.rutgers.edu/center-study-genocide-conflict-resolution-and-human-rights/genocide-ottoman-greeks-1914-1923.

T.M.J. “With the Greeks in Asia Minor.”
Blackwood’s Magazine
, September 1922, 292–304.

“Trade of Smyrna,” Dipolmatic and Consular Reports—Turkey, Report for the Year 1911–1912, London, 1912. From the collection of the Gennadius Library, The American School of Classical Studies, Athens.

White, Ann. “Counting the Cost of Faith. America’s Early Female Missionaries.”
Church History
57, no. 1 (March 1988): 19–30.

Woodhouse, Henry. “American Oil Claims in Turkey.”
Current History
15 (1922): 953–59.

DISSERTATIONS

Buzanski, Peter Michsel. “Admiral Mark L. Bristol and Turkish-American Relations, 1919–1922.” Ph.D. diss., University of California, 1960.

Goodman, Robert Carey. “The Role of the Tobacco Trade in Turkish-American Relations, 1923–29.” Master’s thesis, University of Richmond, 1988. Accessed November 28, 2014. http://scholarship.richmond.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1524&context=masters-theses.

Kenjar, Kevin. “The Ineffable State of Transcendental Ecstasy: Kefi, Rebetiko and Sufi Mysticism.” Master’s thesis, University of Cincinnati, 2007. Accessed November 28, 2014. http://classics.uc.edu/~campbell/Kenjar/Ecstasy.pdf.

Lenser, Samuel David. “Between the Great Idea and Kemalism: The YMCA at Izmir in the 1920s.” Master’s thesis, Boise State University, 2010. Accessed
November 27, 2014. http://scholarworks.boisestate.edu/cgi/view content.cgi?article=1135&context=td.

Shelton, Elizabeth W. “Faith, Freedom, and Flag: The Influence of American Missionaries in Turkey on Foreign Affairs, 1830–1880.” Master’s thesis, Georgetown University Washington, DC, 2011. https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/bitstream/handle/10822/553389/sheltonEliza beth.pdf?sequence=1.

Solomonidis, Victoria. “Greece in Asia Minor: The Greek Administration of the Vilayet of Aidin, 1919–1922.” Ph.D. diss., University of London, 1984.

Wadle, Ryan David. “‘The Fourth Dimension of Naval Tactics’: The U.S. Navy and Public Relations, 1919–1939.” Ph.D. diss., Texas A&M University, 2011. http://hdl.handle.net/1969.1/ETD-TAMU-2011-05-9166.

NEWSPAPERS

Chicago Tribune

New York Times

Portland
(Oregon)
Tribune

Times
of London

Other British newspapers as quoted in secondary sources.

GOVERNMENT DOCUMENTS AND WEBSITES

Naval Investigation Hearings before the Subcommittee of the Committee on Naval Affairs, United States Senate, Sixty-sixth Congress, Second Session . . . Printed for the Use of the Committee on Naval Affairs. Vol. 2. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1921.

U.S. Congress. Senate. Committee on Finance. Hearings Before the Committee on Finance, United States Senate, Sixty-seventh Congress, First Session, on the Proposed Tariff Act of 1921 (H. R. 7456) . . . 1922: American Valuation. 67th Cong., 1st sess. S. Doc. H. R. 7456. Vol. 7. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1922.

U.S. Congress. Senate. Committee on Foreign Relations. Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations. Multinational Corporations and United States Foreign Policy: Hearings, Ninety-third Congress [Ninety-fourth Congress, Second Session], Part 8. 94th Cong., 2d sess. S. Doc. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1975.

U.S. Dept of State Office of the Historian. MILESTONES: 1921–1936.

The pagination of this electronic edition does not match the edition from which it was created. To locate a specific entry, please use your e-book reader’s search tools

Abdul Halik, 194

Abdul Hamid II, 11, 41–42, 125, 171

Adalia, 385

Adams, Henry, 61

Adana pogroms, 42

Addoms, Andrew H., 253–54

Aegean evacuations of refugees, 383–90

Afyon Karahisar, 29, 31, 33, 37–38, 70, 76, 147, 264

Agamemnon
, HMS, 126

Aircraft design, 56

Aivali, 358, 378, 379–80, 384

Ajax
, HMS, 224

Akhisar, 45

Albania, 124, 125

Albany
, USS, 55–56

Aleppo, 84–85, 172

Alexander the Great, 25

Alexandria, 25

Aliotti, Ernesto, 312–14, 340, 345–46

Allenby, Edmund, 172

Alliance One, 276
n

Amalion Orphanage, 392

Amalthea
(newspaper), 78

American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABCFM), 175

American Committee for Syrian and Armenian Relief, 129

American Expeditionary Force, 133

American Federation of Churches of Christ, 326

American Federation of Labor, 130

American Friends of Turkey, 391

American Girls’ School, 200–201

     
American guards at, 118, 140, 200

     
evacuation of, 200–204, 206, 211–13, 212
n

     
refugees and violence, 147, 158, 178, 186, 194, 200–201

American International College, 27, 71, 72–73, 82, 199–200

     
American guards at, 118, 140, 154–55, 205

     
orphan refugees at, 89, 117, 284–85

     
refugees and violence, 87, 151, 162–63, 183–85

American Relief Administration (ARA), 68, 80, 131, 132, 280–82, 283, 294, 310–11, 331

Americans in Smyrna

     
business interests, 24–25, 140–42, 248–50, 263–64, 275–77; Bristol and bank closing, 50–51, 57; Bristol’s policy of protecting, 52, 57–58, 101, 130–31, 174–75, 178–79; community meetings, 79, 80–81, 87

     
evacuation of, 2–6, 193–95, 199–200, 205, 212–13, 215

     
protection of, 52, 68–69, 81, 86, 87–88, 90, 98–100, 118, 139–40, 141, 147, 154–55, 163, 164, 186, 200, 203, 205

     
relief efforts of.
See specific persons and organizations

American Theater (Smyrna Theater), 138, 142, 151–52, 192

     
American guards at, 118, 120, 139, 158

     
evacuations at, 198–99, 204–5

     
Great Fire and, 214, 222

     
refugees at, 167, 198–99

     
relief committee at, 89–90, 155–56

American tobacco companies, 24, 80–81, 263–64, 275–77, 317–18

American Tobacco Company, 156–57, 206–7, 276–77, 315

American Women’s Hospital Association, 352, 353, 385

Anatolia, 11–12, 15–16, 50, 84, 127

Anatolia College, 175–76

Anglo-Ionian Bank, 50–51

Anglo-Persian Oil Co., 243, 244

Ankara government, 68, 172, 194, 285

Antioch
, SS, 79, 104

Anti-Saloon League, 327

Arakelian, Aram, 240

Arakelian, Levon, 169

Araksi (maid), 168–70, 355

Archbell, Jehu, 276–77, 317, 381

Argyropoulos, Ippokratis, 214

Argyropulos, Panos, 340, 345–46, 376, 377

Arlington National Cemetery, 392

Arlotta, Madame, 256

Armenia, and Sevres Treaty, 15, 16

Armenian Club, 206

Armenian Genocide

     
death marches, 9–10, 15–16, 63–64, 84–85, 294–97, 438
n

     
overview, 9–10, 15–16

     
use of term “genocide,” 9, 393–94

Armenian orphans in Smyrna, 202–3, 230–31, 272, 298

Armenian Quarter, 25, 76, 150–51, 154, 159, 165, 168, 180, 186

     
Great Fire, 194, 202, 206–11

     
Jennings in Turkish mob, 195–96

Armenian refugees along Sea of Marmara, 159–60

Armenian refugees in Smyrna, 3–4, 70–71, 72, 75–79, 87, 90–91, 104–5, 107–8, 119–20, 128, 130–35, 144, 174–75

     
days of despair, 290–98

     
evacuation of.
See
Refugee evacuations of Smyrna

     
food shortages, 109–11, 113–14, 157–58, 180–81, 281–82

     
Noureddin and, 174–77

     
relief efforts, 68, 82, 88, 110–15, 119, 128–30, 134, 138–43, 156–59, 165–66, 174, 177, 178, 180, 202–4, 215, 230–34, 280, 281, 291.
See also specific persons and relief organizations

     
Theodora’s story, 92–94, 286–89, 381

     
Turkish violence against, 150–51, 155–56, 159, 160–61, 165–66, 174, 177–79, 182–88, 191–92, 211–12, 234–35, 294

Asia Minor Defense League, 43, 44, 78, 161

Asian Minor, refugee situation in, 383–90

Atatürk.
See
Kemal, Mustapha

Attatürk
(Kinross), 301
n

Austria-Hungary, 11, 12, 124, 244, 245

Aydin Railroad, 36, 70, 108, 196, 360

Bailey, Lewis, 361

Bakas, Governor, 340, 376

Bakeries in Smyrna, 89, 110–11, 113–14, 139–40, 158, 180, 281

Balchova refugee camp, 157, 282–83, 282
n
, 315

Balfour Declaration, 15

Balkan Wars, 82–84, 403
n

Baltimore Sun,
138
n
, 327

Bandits, 162, 163, 198, 243, 276, 282

Barnes, Maynard, 77, 107, 174, 284, 317, 359

     
evacuation preparations, 193–94, 214–15

     
Great Fire and, 218, 235–36

     
relief efforts, 183, 227, 234, 234
n,
317, 362

Barneveld Methodist Church, 113

Barton, James, 326

Battle at Sakaria, 33–34

Battle of Jutland, 222–25

Bavarian
, SS, 79

Beaverbrook, Max Aitken, Lord, 250

Bell, Edward, 333–34

Bello, Toney, 140

Benson, William S., 53, 432–33
n

Bernhardt, Sarah, 261

Birge, Anna, 199–200, 200
n

Birge, J. Kingsley, 72, 198, 316

Bismarck Tribune
, 326

Black, Van Clear, 138
n

Blackley, Francis, 88

Black Sea ports, refugee evacuation of, 385–87

Bliss, Robert Woods, 88

Bolshevik Revolution, 49

Bosnia-Herzegovina, 124

Bosporus, 49–50

Boston Cafe, 77

Boston Red Sox, 61

Boudjah, 94, 117, 164, 186, 284

Bouillon, Henry Franklin, 379

Bournabat, 25, 118, 119, 140, 148–49, 163–64, 186, 218, 316

Bozok, Salih, 162

BP (British Petroleum), 243

Bristol, Helen, 52–53, 54–55, 58, 95–96, 392

Bristol, Mark L.

     
Albany
incident, 55–56

     
American business interests and, 50–51, 52, 57–58, 63, 68, 101, 130–31, 140–42, 174–75, 178–79, 248–50, 275; oil policy, 246, 247, 248, 360

     
American relief community and, 128–29, 130, 132, 134–35, 152, 174–75, 234, 235

     
anti-Greek and Armenian sentiments of, 96–97, 99, 130, 131, 133, 265, 410–11
n
; claims of Greek atrocities, 133–34, 148, 150, 181–82, 250–51

     
authority of, 52–54

     
background of, 52–53, 55–57, 96–97, 248–49

     
distrust of British, 50–51, 152, 246, 249, 250, 251

     
Hepburn and, 98, 135, 137–42, 149–50, 152, 153, 161, 165, 174, 178–79, 182–83, 219, 220, 231, 236, 269, 272, 317, 332–33

     
as high commissioner, 48–59, 95–96, 98–102, 247, 249–50

     
Horton and, 39, 54, 62–63, 67–69, 80, 86, 98, 131, 181–83, 251; request for naval protection, 68–69, 81, 86, 87–88, 90, 98–100

     
Houston and, 219–20

     
intelligence gathering, 53–54, 98–99; by Merrill, 98–99, 104, 108, 115–16, 120, 182–83, 271–72

     
Jennings and, 330, 343, 345, 345
n
, 391; learns of mission, 316–17, 369–74

     
later life of, 392

     
onboard
Scorpion
, 48, 58, 95, 98, 100, 250, 255, 329, 331

     
Powell and, 263, 285, 293, 298, 316–17, 330, 340, 360, 369–70, 379, 389

     
pro-Turkish sentiments of, 62–63, 67–68, 129, 330

     
public relations of, 100–101, 133–34, 135, 254–55

     
response to Smyrna crisis, 67–69, 87–88, 130–35, 176–77, 249–56, 266, 267, 272, 293, 294, 296
n
, 386, 388–89; pressure to intervene, 325, 327–37

     
State Department cables, 62–63, 68–69, 80, 250–51, 255–56, 333–34

Britain

     
Bristol and, 50–51, 130–35, 152, 249, 250, 251

     
Gallipoli Campaign, 32–33, 126, 223–24

     
Great Fire and refugee rescue, 223–28

     
Greek ship refugee evacuations and, 360–61, 363–65, 378–82

     
naval presence in Smyrna harbor, 78–79, 87, 103–4, 152–53

     
Near East oil and, 241–44

     
post-war division of Ottoman Empire, 11–15, 245–46

     
Turkish War of Independence
and, 16, 31, 34, 57–58, 62, 78–79, 153, 182, 192–93, 192
n
, 223, 269

     
in World War I, 83, 85, 125–26, 171–72, 245

British in Smyrna, 111, 153, 161, 164, 181, 182

     
evacuation of, 78–79, 80, 98, 104, 152–53, 197, 291

British Mandate, 15, 124, 245–46

Brooks
, USS, 219–20

Broussa, 252–54

Brown, Constantine, 100–101, 107–9, 116, 148, 182, 255, 271–72, 333

Brown, John, 140

Buckle, Hugh C., 360–61, 363

Bugdonvich, John, 140

Burmah Oil Co., 243

Byzantine Empire, 13

Caffrey, Jefferson, 328, 369–72, 376

Caldwell, Samuel L., 72, 88

Campbell-Geddes, Auckland, 131, 285

Cannon, James, Jr., 326–27

Carathina, George, 284

Caravan Bridge, 76, 154, 155

Cardiff
, HMS, 225–26, 227

Cardos, Captain, 340

Carthage YMCA, 21

Casaba Railroad, 38, 43, 76, 81, 196

Casaprian, Haroutoun, 200
n

Casey, USS, 381

Centre College, 260

Chanak, 153, 182, 224, 299, 331, 362

Cherfeddine, 145–46

Chesme, 127, 136, 139, 164, 375, 383

Chicago Daily News
, 100–101, 271–72, 333

Chicago Herald
, 39–40

Chicago Tribune
, 65
n
, 100–101, 195

Chicago White Sox, 75

Chigiltepe, 34–35

Chios, 313, 375–76, 384–85

Cholera, 291, 387

Christian Science Monitor
, 254–55

Christians in Smyrna, 37–39, 43–44, 150–51, 159, 188

     
evacuation of, 178–80, 204, 231, 270

     
refugees flooding into Smyrna, 77–78, 91, 177

     
Theodora’s story, 92–94, 286–89, 381

Christians in Turkey, 159–60, 231, 386–87

     
American Protestantism and, 21–22

     
Horton’s desire to protect, 37–39, 42 43, 63, 85

     
Noureddin’s decision to expel, 174–76, 178

     
post-war division of Ottoman Empire and, 10–13, 245–46

     
Sevres Treaty and, 14–15, 246–47

     
Turkish slaughter of, 82–84, 125, 150–51, 159–60, 170, 176–78; death marches, 9–10, 15–16, 63–64, 84–85, 294–97

     
U.S. policy towards, 63–64, 86, 101; pressure to intervene, 325–37

Christie, Jean, 80, 202–3

Chrysostomos, 44, 172–73, 177

Churchill, Winston, 32, 269

Ciepiewicz, John, 140

Citta Di Torino
, 309

Clayton, John, 100–101, 107–8, 116, 120, 148, 149, 161, 181, 195, 215, 281–82, 359, 381

Cleo
, 315

Cleopatra, 22

Cleveland, Grover, 40

Colby, Chester, 243–44

Constantine I of Greece, 162, 299, 342, 377, 403–4
n

Constantinople, 11, 13, 16, 48–50, 331, 387–88

Constantinople Club, 255

Constantinople Relief Committee, 132, 141

Constantinople Women’s College, 254

Constantinopoli
, 309–14

Coogan, Jackie, 130

Coolidge, Calvin, 393

Corning, Sara, 143, 221, 265

     
relief efforts, 134, 142, 143, 165–66, 180, 215; orphanage girls, 202–4

Council on Foreign Relations, 135, 423
n

Crane, Stephen, 40

Crete, 13, 125

Crocker, Louis, 154–55, 184–85

Croesus, 42

Crusades, 13–14

Curacoa
, HMS, 307, 360–63, 365, 366, 381

Curzon, George, Lord, 131, 245, 269, 285

Custom House Pier, 26, 117, 268, 361

Cyprus, British seizure of, 124

Damascus wind, 191–92

Daniels, Josephus, 102

Danos, Chrys, 254–55

Daragatch Road, 218, 297

D’Arcy, William Knox, 241–43

Dardanelles, 15, 32, 125–26, 223–24, 329

Davis, Charles Claflin, 146, 205, 212

     
Great Fire and, 215, 218–19

     
refugee situation, 157–59, 174, 177, 187, 194–95

     
relief efforts, 134, 138–41, 156–59, 174, 177, 178, 231–34, 280

     
rescue efforts, 218–25, 227, 272, 278, 303, 310–11, 316, 317