The Jamestown Experiment (5 page)

When they stepped aboard their three vessels, no one could predict what the outcome would be for their purses, their very lives, or the glory of England. The council had generally planned well for the governance, profit, and survival of the colony. The instructions were closely related to fulfilling the goals of the investors. But the character of the instructions made it plain that the colony would resemble previous English attempts to settle in America. At this point, no one questioned the communal and centralized qualities of the colony for those more consistent with free Englishmen.

Chapter Three

I
t was very early on a chilly December morning when Capt. Christopher Newport dressed and went to oversee his fleet bobbing in the Thames. The forest of ship masts crowded the wharf of this busy port. A few friends and relatives came early to see off the small fleet, but London was the center of shipping for global trade networks, privateering, and exploratory voyages, so the fleet’s departure did not garner much popular attention. Newport was satisfied that all was ready to sail.

Newport captained the
Susan Constant
and had sole command of the fleet. He was a one-armed military man who had sailed throughout the Atlantic as a privateer and raided Spanish treasure fleets. A bit of a mercenary acting in the interests of the Crown, he captured or sank dozens of Spanish ships. In 1592 he won renown by plundering the
Madre de Dios
of hundreds of tons of valuable spices, silks, and gems. Newport even took part in Drake’s bold raid on the Spanish port of Cadiz, sinking part of the assembled armada months before it set out and was destroyed by storms at sea. He also
knew American waters as well as anyone and was a good choice to lead the fleet.

The primary organizer of the voyage, Bartholomew Gosnold, was at the helm of the
Godspeed
and had similarly impressive credentials for piloting a ship in the waters of the New World. The captain of the
Discovery
was a mysterious gentleman turned captain, John Ratcliffe, formerly known as John Sicklemore.

Newport’s three dozen mariners were busy with the final preparations for what was expected to be a ten- to fourteen-week voyage, although any number of problems could lengthen that journey by weeks—any such delay, however, would be deadly, as passengers and crews suffered the effects of scurvy. Orders were barked out as the crew speedily carried out their tasks. Some carried the final casks of food and water below, while others checked and rechecked their equipment as they had done over the last several weeks. Finally, the crew was ready to sail.

Passengers filtered toward the three ships. Some were escorted by wives, children, or parents making tearful good-byes; others simply came alone. Most were hardy young men in their twenties or thirties, although a few boys also could be seen. Almost half were gentlemen and expected the proper deference from the crew and the artisans aboard ship. The craftsmen included four carpenters, two bricklayers, a blacksmith, a tailor, a mason, and a sailmaker. No women boarded the vessels. There were no families. All the passengers were young men in search of adventure and glory—but most of all great amounts of gold (although other forms of wealth would do nicely too). Indeed, self-interest drove these men to take the great risks in braving the voyage and settlement overseas. They were risking the possibility of winning great wealth against the expense of their lives.

Newport kept the sealed box with the settlers’ instructions from the Virginia Council in his cabin. For now, the settlers and
mariners were simply to follow Newport’s direction—period. Wisely, the Virginia Council placed a copy of the instructions on each ship. Many dangers—hurricanes, Spanish ships, epidemics— lurked during the long voyage, threatening to strike at any time. If the council sent only one copy of the instructions and it went down with its ship, the colony would be leaderless and prone to chaos and failure. This seemingly obvious prudential measure was not a routine that was always followed during later voyages.

On December 20, 1606, 144 sailors and adventurers set sail for Virginia as their three ships quietly slipped their moorings. They rode the ebb tide, sailing down the Thames and catching a last sight of the English countryside. The river pilots navigated them past the busy wharves, where ships from Britain’s burgeoning global trade docked. The adventurers aboard the three ships were filled with both excitement and trepidation.

The Gulf Stream, little understood until Benjamin Franklin made his measurements while sailing across the Atlantic, brought warm water currents across the Atlantic, moderating the climate of England. However, westerly winds shot across the wave tops of the treacherous North Atlantic. They brought storms and daunting winds to sailors trying to ride the winds and tides southward.

The
Susan Constant, Godspeed,
and
Discovery
soon were caught in a maelstrom of winds. The gales blew hard against the sails for weeks on end, with no reprieve. A few days after setting off, Newport and the other captains dropped anchor to avoid being dashed against the rocks off the north coast of Kent, in the Downs, within sight of land.

One person in the fleet noted that on the “fifth of January we anchored in the Downs, but the winds continued contrary so long that we were forced to stay there some time, where we suffered great
storms. But by the skillfulness of the captain we suffered no great loss or danger.” In fact, church steeples could still be seen in the distance, though the winds muted their tolling bells. That, however, was of little consolation to many passengers.
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The boats rocked violently in the white-capped waves that the tempests kicked up. The horizon never seemed to settle in one position, and the landlubbers became violently ill. The fleet’s only minister, the Reverend Robert Hunt, became terribly seasick. As the days became weeks, Hunt could not eat anything and lost weight and his strength. John Smith witnessed the unfortunate scene and stated that Hunt “was so weak and sick that few expected his recovery.”
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The smell aboard the ships was almost unbearable. Besides the offensive smells resulting from the seasickness, dozens of unwashed bodies closely packed together on the ships made the vessels reek. Added to that was the smell of spilled chamber pots, livestock, and rotting food, all of which was bound to get worse as they crossed the Atlantic.

The three vessels stayed there for six long weeks. Many of the passengers, especially the gentlemen, wanted to know why they were not moving. They were consuming precious supplies of food and water while waiting for the storm to pass, but the ships could easily spring deadly leaks in such tempestuous weather. The decision to proceed without enough supplies or on a leaky vessel could be deadly.

The men grated on each other’s nerves in the close confines of the ship. Fierce divisions and discord raged. Many wanted to abandon the voyage and return to England, which was still in sight. So they turned their anger against Reverend Hunt and blamed him for their difficulties. A faction of men, dubbed “atheists” and “godless foes” by John Smith, proposed putting the reverend ashore. The seasick minister “with the water of patience and his godly exhortations, but
chiefly by his true devoted examples, quenched those flames of envy and dissension.” However, others soon flared up.
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Finally, the adventurers caught a break in the weather and raised anchor—trying again to sail for the New World. They took a southerly course, and the weather gradually became warmer, giving the crew better working conditions and allowing the passengers to venture on the top deck for fresh air or a nighttime view of the stars. Many had time to reflect on their purposes for settling in Virginia.

The fleet stayed within sight of one another as they sailed toward the Canary Islands, west of the coast of Africa, where they stopped to refill their barrels of fresh water and purchase supplies. The passengers and crew went ashore briefly to enjoy a few moments of their last landfall until they reached the Caribbean, and then the refreshed fleet continued on its journey, sailing along the equator, riding the easterly trade winds and equatorial current toward the New World.

During the late hours of February 12, the sailors caused quite a stir on deck when they “saw a blazing star” in the nighttime sky. The superstitious mariners interpreted the comet as a bad omen. Sure enough, the signs from the heavens read true, as “presently a storm” rolled in and blew the ships.
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Besides the storm, the comet also portended another evil—more disputes aboard the flagship, this time centered on the proud and pugnacious John Smith. The next day, Smith was arrested as a mutineer and “restrained as a prisoner.” He was clapped in chains and locked up for the duration of the voyage to Virginia. Smith was accused of conspiring to “usurp the government, murder the council, and make himself king.” He was jailed under Newport’s absolute authority and could be hanged or marooned on an island to die for mutiny.
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Smith may have openly challenged the directions of the captain
or gentlemen on the
Susan Constant
one too many times. He could not help criticizing their decisions when he believed he had a better answer. Either way, Newport would not allow Smith to flout his authority. Additionally, the gentry on the ship did not respect Smith’s status as a gentleman, regarding him as an upstart and a vulgar commoner. For Smith’s part, his meteoric rise in the army through his intelligence, experience, and grit meant that he did not suffer fools lightly. All the same, his combativeness placed him in chains.

With Smith safely restrained, a semblance of peace was restored in the fleet. So far, the voyagers were remarkably lucky; they had not lost a single person to disease. Malnutrition endangered every transatlantic voyage. It was caused by increasingly foul water and a monotonous diet of fetid salt pork and moldy hardtack with every passing day. To counter this danger, ships stopped often for provisions at various islands throughout the Caribbean. The growing signs of scurvy— rank breath, bleeding gums, and wiggly teeth—were mitigated by the consumption of fresh fruit. These stops also presented opportunities for the crew and passengers to clean their filthy bodies, although many did not take advantage of the chance to bathe.

Finally, on March 23, a sailor sighted the island of Martinique to the relief of the passengers and crew. The fleet dropped anchor the following day at Dominica. One adventurer described the island paradise as “a very fair island, the trees full of sweet and good smells.” They spotted several canoes being rowed toward their ships. The native Caribs were hesitant to get too close to the English ships because of previous hostile encounters with the Spanish. Once the peaceful intentions of the visitors were ascertained, however, the “savage Indians” provided different fruits and even some French cloth. In return, the English offered knives, hatchets, beads, and copper jewels.
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The natives, George Percy noted, put their jewelry “through their nostrils, ears, and lips, very strange to behold.” He also recorded that “their bodies are all painted red.” They went around “naked without covering.” More frightening than their strange dress and paint was the fear that the natives “will eat their enemies when they kill them, or any stranger if they take them.” Besides the Caribs’ suspected cannibalism, the Englishman added, “They worship the Devil for their god and have no other belief.” Newport and his men completed their trades, watched a thresher and a swordfish kill a whale for a few hours, and then departed.
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The three ships continued sailing with slack winds through the maze of islands for another day, until they halted at Guadalupe. They found a spring that was so hot that no one could stand it for very long. Newport even boiled a piece of pork in it. They sailed past the island of Montserrat and then anchored at Nevis and landed for a week of rest and exercise. They disembarked (except for Smith and whatever crewmembers were on watch) and enjoyed a respite from their long journey.

The men marched onto the island “well fitted with muskets… fearing the treachery of the Indians.” They finally had the opportunity to clean themselves and their filthy clothes. The stinking, sweating men “bathed ourselves and found it to be of the nature of the baths in England, some places hot and some colder—men may refresh themselves as they please.” They were able to live off the land rather than dipping into the ship’s rotting supplies, which was perfectly acceptable to all. During their stay, “Some went a hunting, some a fouling, and some a fishing, where we got great store of conies, sundry kinds of fowls, and great plenty of fish.” They built campfires and enjoyed the warmth and a freshly roasted meal. The reverie was unbroken by any Indian attacks, although the English maintained a guard. The natives were sighted but did not interact with the visitors.
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