The Jewish Annotated New Testament (113 page)

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The grace of the Lord Jesus Christ be with your spirit.
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THE LETTER TO THE HEBREWS

Hebrews stands out from other New Testament literature in three ways: it is the only document that contains a sustained argument on the nature of Christ; its origin is unknown and thus its connections to other early Christian writings are unclear; and it is often perceived as the New Testament’s most anti-Jewish text.

AUTHORSHIP AND LITERARY HISTORY

Although pre-modern commentators assumed that Paul wrote Hebrews, virtually all scholars today agree that Paul was not the author. The document circulated anonymously in antiquity, and the title “To the Hebrews” was added when it was collected together with Paul’s letters. Although there are some resonances between Hebrews and Paul’s genuine writings (for example, references to “dead works” [6.1; 9.14]), the language, style, and purpose of Hebrews is different. Although it has traditionally been considered a letter, 13.22 identifies the work as a “word of exhortation,” implying that it was a sermon. Some interpreters have compared Hebrews to other ancient Jewish sermons, and one scholar has even suggested that Hebrews was a synagogue homily delivered on the ninth of the month of Ab, the day that commemorates the destruction of the First and Second Temple (
m. Ta’an
. 4.6).

Scholars debate whether Hebrews was written before or after the destruction of the Jerusalem Temple in 70 CE. Those arguing for a pre-70 date observe that Hebrews nowhere mentions the destruction. Because of the text’s supersessionist perspective—namely, the temple cult is superseded by the one-time sacrifice of Jesus—an appeal to the destruction of the Temple would have greatly bolstered the argument that the Levitical sacrifices have become obsolete (chs 8–10). Those advocating a post-70 date argue that the text assumes the reality of the Temple’s destruction and that its supersessionism is a response to the catastrophe.

Hebrews’ geographical setting is also debated. The title “To the Hebrews” indicates that early readers thought that the intended audience was Jewish, and that led to postulating a Jerusalem setting. Many commentators, both ancient and modern, believe the author writes to Jewish-Christians tempted to “backslide” into non-messianic Judaism. But the text displays no knowledge of the Jerusalem Temple, focusing instead on the wilderness Tabernacle (Ex 25.1–31.11; 36.1–40.38). Because Hebrews has a Platonic philosophical orientation resembling that of Philo of Alexandria—for example, both Hebrews and Philo conceptualize the Jerusalem Temple as the physical form of an immaterial temple (8.1–5; 9.23–24; Philo,
Heir
75, 112–13;
Prelim. Studies
116–17)—an Alexandrian setting is possible. (There is no clear evidence, however, that the author of Hebrews was familiar with the writings of Philo.) Still others posit a Roman setting because Heb 13.24 extends greetings to “those from Italy” and because the earliest mention of Hebrews comes from the early Christian text,
1 Clement
, written from Rome. Whatever the setting of the author or the audience, Hebrews does not appear to be addressing local circumstances as do the Pauline letters.

STRUCTURE AND CONTENTS

Hebrews has the New Testament’s most sophisticated Greek, marked by rhythmic cadences, alliteration, and other poetic devices. Although hard to detect in English, its first four verses form a poetic chain of syllabically balanced clauses, and the opening line resounds with alliteration and assonance. Creating an alliterative rhythm, the phrase “by faith” introduces each figure named in the list of biblical heroes in ch 11.

A good portion of Hebrews is taken up with explicating scripture cited from the Greek translation of the Bible (the Septuagint). The author demonstrates sophisticated scriptural interpretation and often expounds a single word or phrase at great length (see, e.g., Ps 95.11 in ch 4 or Ps 110.1 in ch 7). The purpose of such citations is almost always to demonstrate the superiority of Christ.

Hebrews offers a distinct and elevated Christology. As the son of God, Jesus is superior to all other beings, including angels—he is uncreated, immortal, and permanent. He is also superior to all biblical heroes, including Moses and Abraham, as well as institutions like the Levitical priesthood. As both perfect sacrifice and heavenly priest who intercedes for humans, Jesus supersedes the Jewish sacrificial system, rendering it obsolete. Indeed, the text states that sacrifices performed by the Levitical priests are ineffective precisely because they had to be repeated (10.1–5), while Jesus’ sacrifice was only offered once. Yet, for Hebrews, Jesus is also fully human: although sinless (4.15), he died to atone for the sins of others.

GUIDE TO READING

Because Hebrews argues for Jesus’ superiority over all else, Hebrews can be read as supersessionist. Drawing on Jeremiah’s reference (31.31) to a “new covenant,” the author calls Mosaic Law “only a shadow of the good things to come” (10.1) and insists that “in speaking of ‘a new covenant,’ he has made the first one obsolete. And what is obsolete and growing old will soon disappear” (8.13). Such language helped foster the view that Judaism was an inferior religion, a temporary guide prior to Christ. In recent years, scholars have made efforts to address the problem of anti-Judaism in Hebrews and have attempted to offer alternative understandings of these key verses.

Pamela Eisenbaum

1
Long ago God spoke to our ancestors in many and various ways by the prophets,
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but in these last days he has spoken to us by a Son,
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whom he appointed heir of all things, through whom he also created the worlds.
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He is the reflection of God’s glory and the exact imprint of God’s very being, and he sustains
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all things by his powerful word. When he had made purification for sins, he sat down at the right hand of the Majesty on high,
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having become as much superior to angels as the name he has inherited is more excellent than theirs.

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For to which of the angels did God ever

say,
     “You are my Son;
         today I have begotten you”?

Or again,
    “I will be his Father,
        and he will be my Son”?

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And again, when he brings the firstborn into
the world, he says,
      “Let all God’s angels worship him.”

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Of the angels he says,
      “He makes his angels winds,
          and his servants flames of fire.”

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But of the Son he says,
      “Your throne, O God, is
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forever and ever,
            and the righteous scepter is the scepter
                    of your
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kingdom.

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You have loved righteousness and hated
              wickedness;

therefore God, your God, has anointed you
         with the oil of gladness beyond your
                companions.”

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And,
      “In the beginning, Lord, you founded the
             earth,
         and the heavens are the work of your
                 hands;

PERFECTION THROUGH SUFFERING

Pervasive in Hebrews, the language of perfection refers to more advanced teachings (6.1), the condition of those who follow Jesus (10.1,14; 11.40; 12.23), what the law lacks but what Jesus achieves (7.11,19; 9.9), and what Jesus achieves for himself through his suffering (2.10; 5.9). The term itself, “teleios,” connotes maturity, fulfillment, moral perfection, wholeness, and holiness. In cultic contexts it refers to the unblemished state of sacrificial animals and the condition of the priest who makes the sacrifice (
m. Midd
. 5.4). Many exhortations to be perfect before God appear in the Tanakh (Gen 20.5; Deut 18.13; Judg 9.16,19). Philo, like the author of Hebrews, favors perfection terminology, and uses it to name the goal of the virtuous individual (
Leg. all
. 1.94; 3.74;
Names
24) as well as the state of the person who achieves a vision of the divine (
Leg. all
. 3.74). Finally, according to Hebrews, Jesus is perfected through his suffering. Similar ideas appear in Jewish Hellenistic literature, developing the concept that one’s sufferings, if undergone in the right way, can bring one to maturity and completion. In Wis 4.13, the righteous man who dies before reaching old age is said to have been “perfected,” even though his life was brief; in 4 Macc 7.15, Eleazer’s martyrdom is said to have rendered him “perfect.” In the latter case, the language of perfection describes a pious man’s suffering to death.

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they will perish, but you remain;
      they will all wear out like clothing;

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like a cloak you will roll them up,
      and like clothing
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they will be changed.

But you are the same,
      and your years will never end.”

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But to which of the angels has he ever said,
      “Sit at my right hand
         until I make your enemies a footstool
                  for your feet”?

¹⁴
Are not all angels
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spirits in the divine service, sent to serve for the sake of those who are to inherit salvation?

2
Therefore we must pay greater attention to what we have heard, so that we do not drift away from it.
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For if the message declared through angels was valid, and every transgression or disobedience received a just penalty,
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how can we escape if we neglect so great a salvation? It was declared at first through the Lord, and it was attested to us by those who heard him,
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while God added his testimony by signs and wonders and various miracles, and by gifts of the Holy Spirit, distributed according to his will.

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Now God
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did not subject the coming world, about which we are speaking, to angels.
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But someone has testified somewhere,

  “What are human beings that you are
              mindful of them,
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         or mortals, that you care for them?
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You have made them for a little while
              lower
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than the angels;
        you have crowned them with glory and honor,
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8}
subjecting all things under their feet.”
Now in subjecting all things to them, God
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left nothing outside their control. As it is, we do not yet see everything in subjection to them,
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but we do see Jesus, who for a little while was made lower
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than the angels, now crowned with glory and honor because of the suffering of death, so that by the grace of God
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he might taste death for everyone.

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It was fitting that God,
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for whom and through whom all things exist, in bringing many children to glory, should make the pioneer of their salvation perfect through sufferings.
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For the one who sanctifies and those who are sanctified all have one Father.
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For this reason Jesus
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is not ashamed to call them brothers and sisters,
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