The Jewish Annotated New Testament (242 page)

8
–20
: The healing parallels Peter’s act (3.1–10).

9
:
Intently
, see 3.4.
Faith to be healed
, faith often accompanies healing (3.16; Lk 5.20; 7.50; 8.48).

10
: Paul often performs miracles (13.11; 19.11; 28.3–5).

11
–12
:
Lycaonian language
, if an independent language, it has not survived; it may also have been a local Greek dialect. That gods could appear in human form was widely accepted (Gen 18.2; Homer,
Od
. 17.483–487; Ovid,
Metam
. 8.611–724).

14
:
Tore their clothes
, showing deep distress (Gen 37.29; Judg 11.35; 2 Kings 2.12; Jdt 14.16; 1 Macc 13.45).

15
:
Worthless things
, idols (Isa 57.13; Ps 96.5; 97.7; Wis 13.10–19).
To the living God
, rejecting idols also required turning to the true God.

16
: Jews could express toleration of idols (Philo,
Spec
.
Laws
1.53;
Life of Moses
2.205; Josephus,
Ant
. 4.207;
Ag. Ap
. 2.237), and legitimize their use as ancestral customs (
b. Hul
. 13b).

17
: God cares for all and can be known by all; see 17.22–31.

19
:
Jews
, the presence of Jews from 100 miles away manifests Luke’s view of their deep hatred for Paul.
Stoned
, see 2 Cor 11.25.

21
–28
: Paul revisits the communities in Pisidia and Lycaonia where he had previously preached, and he ultimately returns to Jerusalem.

22
:
Strengthened the souls
, see 15.41; 16.5; 18.23; 20.2. Lk 21.12–19 attributes to Jesus teaching on suffering as a precursor to the kingdom of God; Jewish texts state that violence and suffering will accompany the end-time (Dan 11.32–35;
Sib
.
Or
. 3.635–51;
4 Ezra
6.18–25;
2 Bar
. 70;
m. Sot
. 9.15).

23
:
Elders
, see 11.30.
Lord
, Jesus, see 1.21; 9.5.

25
:
Attalia
, seaport of Perga; see 13.13n.

27
:
Church
, assembly of believers. Although Paul had success among Jews, the story’s interest remains with Gentile believers.

15.1
–35: Jerusalem council.
Gentiles have been accepted among the people of God (10.1–11.18; 13.1–14.28); now the church addresses the question of whether these believers should observe practices that the Torah commands for Israel. Luke presents this divisive issue as being easily and amicably resolved (cf. 6.1–6). Paul’s letters offer a different picture (Gal 2.1–14).

1
–5
: Gentile believers need to observe the law.

1
:
Circumcised
, Jews trace the practice to Abraham (Gen 17.9–14; see also Lev 12.3). Although circumcision was practiced by other peoples, it became a marker of Jewish identity (1 Macc 1.15;
Ant
. 1.192; Tacitus,
Hist
. 5.5.2).
Saved
, see 2.40n. An important objective in Acts (2.21; 4.12; 11.14; 16.30–31).

2
:
Appointed to go up
, Paul describes the decision as coming from a revelation (Gal 2.2), rather than a committee meeting.

4
:
Elders
, see 11.30.

5
:
Pharisees
, dedicated observers of Jewish law (Gal 1.14; Josephus,
J.W
. 1.110).
Keep the law of Moses
, clarifies what is implied by v. 1. Luke presents Pharisees as largely sympathetic with Christians. These Pharisees, however, understand believers in Jesus to be Jews, and therefore in need of circumcision.

6
–11
: Peter, Paul, Barnabas, and James, also appear in Paul’s account (Gal 2.1,9). In his previous appearance in Acts, Peter mentions Cornelius (10.1–11.18), argues that Gentiles received the Holy Spirit, insists God makes no distinction, and asserts both that the law presents an unreasonable burden and that salvation comes through grace, all arguments familiar from Paul.

7
:
Much debate
, the absence of defense by the Pharisees makes the proceedings seem harmonious.

8
: 10.1–11.18.

9
:
Cleansing their hearts
, see Ps 51.10 (Heb v. 12).
No distinction
, 10.34.

10
:
Putting God to the test
, 5.9; Ex 17.2; Ps 78.41.
Yoke
, Gk “zygos” in LXX often for Heb “‘ol,” lit., “yoke” as neckpiece on a dra animal; metaphorically, many texts in the Tanakh use the image of a yoke to express hardship, especially foreign oppression (Deut 28.48; Isa 14.25; Jer 27.12; Sir 40.1; 1 Macc 13.41). In rabbinic writings it represents proper acceptance of God’s sovereignty (
m. Ber
. 2.2;
b. Seb
. 13a;
b. Ker
. 7a;
Ex. Rab
. 30.5), which extends blessings to those who wear it (
m. Avot
3.5).

11
:
Saved through the grace
, another instance of similar phrasing in Paul’s letters (e.g., Rom 3.21–26). The contrast between the faith that Jews possess and that of Jesus’ followers, expressed here as “yoke/law” and “grace,” is not borne out in Tanakh, e.g., Ex 34.6; Hos 11.3–4,8–9; Ps 51.1 (Heb v. 3).

12
:
Signs and wonders
, see 13.11; 14.8–10.

13
–21
: James adds scriptural support for the inclusion of Gentiles.

13
:
James
, brother of Jesus; see 12.17;
Ant
. 20.200.

14
:
Simeon
, Semitic form of Simon, Peter’s given name.
People for his name
, a term normally used to describe Israel (3.12; 4.10; 5.34; Lk 7.16; 19.47; 21.23).

16
–18
: Am 9.11–12. The Hebrew version speaks of Israel’s possessing other nations. The Septuagint, which in Luke’s version here is what James quotes, refers to God’s act of restoration of all peoples, Jews and Gentiles.

20
: James proposes a set of requirements for Gentiles: although not certain, it is likely the four elements relate to participation in pagan worship.
Things polluted by idols
, presumably foods sacrificed to idols; see v. 29; Ex 34.15; Dan 1.8; 1 Cor 8; 10.18–22.
Fornication
, improper sexual activity (Lev 18.6–30; 1 Cor 5.1; 6.18).
Strangled
, possibly a requirement that meat come only from animals slaughtered in the ritually correct manner (Lev 7.24; 17.15; Deut 14.21), so that the blood is drained from them.
Blood
, Lev 7.26–27; 17.10–16; Deut 12.23–25, possibly a reference to murder (i.e., bloodshed). Jewish texts set forth similar requirements for righteous Gentiles (
Jub
. 7.20); the Noachide Laws (an expansion of the covenant with Noah in Gen 9.1–17, which according to Jewish understanding is thereby incumbent on all human beings) require Gentiles to refrain from idolatry, blasphemy, murder, incest, stealing, and consuming flesh from a living creature, and to establish justice in an orderly legal system (
t. Avodah Zara
8.4;
b. Sanh
. 52b;
Gen. Rab
. 16.6). See “The Law,” p.
515
. Leviticus makes similar declarations regarding strangers dwelling in the land (Lev 17–18).

21
: James suggests both that the Torah justifies his decision and that Gentile converts, having heard the Torah, would agree with it.

22
:
Barsabbas
, see 1.23. Nothing else is reported of him.
Silas
, Paul’s frequent traveling companion (16.16–18.17).

23
–29: Letter to the church.

24
: The Jerusalem leaders repudiate any association with those requiring Gentiles to observe the law.

29
: See v. 20.

30
–35
:

Paul and Barnabas return to Antioch.
The story ends where it began with Paul and Barnabas preaching in Antioch.

32
:
Prophets
, see 11.27.

15.36
–18.23: Paul’s journey to and in Greece.

15.36
–16.10: Paul travels to Greece. 15.37–39
: Paul and Barnabas disagreed over Jews and Gentiles sharing table fellowship (Gal 2.11–14).

37
:
John
…
Mark
, 12.12,25; 13.5,13,24,25.

38
: See 13.13.

39
: Barnabas is from Cyprus (4.36).

41
:
Strengthening the churches
, see 14.22.

16.1
: Paul returns to Derbe and Lystra.

1
–3
:
Son of a Jewish woman
…
father was a Greek
, matrilineal descent may not have been established at this time; Timothy was not circumcised eight days after his birth, so because of his mixed parentage he was not raised as a Jew. He was Paul’s valued companion (Rom 16.21; 1 Cor 4.17; 16.10; 2 Cor 1.1,19; Phil 1.1; 2.19,22; 1 Thess 1.1; 3.2,6). His family is mentioned in 2 Tim 1.5. Timothy’s circumcision seems contrary to the conclusion of the Jerusalem council (15.19) and Paul’s teaching (e.g., Gal 2.3–4; 5.2–11), but the actions fit Luke’s larger portrayal of Paul as someone against whom Jews have no legitimate reason to object (cf. 21.21).