The Jewish Annotated New Testament (271 page)

3
:
Grace
, a Greek salutation,
and peace
, reflecting the Hebrew salutation “shalom” (Rom 1.7; 1 Cor 1.3; 2 Cor 1.2; 1 Thess 1.1).

4
:
For our sins
, perhaps alluding to Isa 53.5–6.
Set us free
, remove us
from the present evil age
, controlled by evil or demonic forces (4.3) but soon to be either destroyed or radically transformed. Christ’s death rescues humanity from these forces.

5
: This is the only Pauline letter whose salutation ends with a doxology, the attribution of “glory” (Gk “doxa”) to God under the influence of such verses as Ezek 3.12; Ps 29.1–2, and especially 104.31. Glory (Heb “kavod”) is a common attribute of God in the Tanakh (e.g., Ex 16.10; 24.16).

1.6
–9: Paul rebukes the Galatians.
Unlike other Pauline epistles, Galatians lacks a thanksgiving section.

6
:
The one who called you
, in Paul’s letters, the subject of “to call” (Gk “kalein”) is always God. Cf. 1.15; 5.8. Some manuscripts omit
of Christ
, confirming that the one who has called is God.
Different gospel
, cf. 2 Cor 11.4. “Other” or “different” meaning “wrong, illegitimate” appears in rabbinic literature too: a wrong view is “another way” (Heb “derekh’a
ḥ
eret”,
t. Ber
. 6.6), idolaters are sometimes called “other ones, different ones” (“‘a
ḥ
erim,”
Mek. Neziqin
12), the arch-heretic Elisha ben Abuyah was known as “the other one” (“‘a
ḥ
er,”
b. Hag
. 14b).
Gospel
(“evangelion”), lit., “good tidings,” translation of Heb “besorah.” The root “b-s-r” is used in Deutero-Isaiah’s prophecies of redemption (40.9; 52.7; 60.6; 61.1).

8
:
Angel
(“angelos”), lit., “messenger.” Compare Deut 13.1–6, concerning false prophets who mislead people.

9
:
What you received
, via teaching and tradition; cf. 1 Cor 15.1–3. The rabbinic equivalent is “qibbel” (
m. Avot
1.1).
Let that one be accursed
, lit., “let him be ‘anathema,’” the Gk translation of biblical “
ḥ
erem” (Deut 7.26; Josh 6.17).

1.10
–12: Paul’s independence. 12
:
A revelation of Jesus Christ
, claiming his “gospel” derives directly from God (cf. 1 Cor 11.23; 15.3), Paul stresses his independence.

1.13
–14: Paul’s life in Judaism. 13
:
Judaism
appears in the NT only here and v. 14; “judaize” and “judaicly” only in 2.14. (The adjective “judaic” appears in Titus 1.14.) The Greek term connotes the distinctive ways and manners, customs and beliefs of the Judean people, cf. Phil 3.5. (See “Paul and Judaism,” p.
551
; “Judaism and Jewishness,” p.
513
.) Paul’s
earlier life
was
in Judaism
, but his current life, after he received his revelation from God (1.15–16), is not.
Violently persecuting
, Acts 8–9; 22.4–5.
Church of God
, see 1.2n.

14
:
Zealous
, the language of “zeal” had currency in first-century Jewish circles; the revolutionaries whom Josephus calls “Zealots” probably depicted themselves as zealots for God and Torah, inspired by such verses as Num 25.11 and 1 Kings 19.10,14. Here the word means “a devotee of.”
Traditions of my ancestors
, “traditions of the ancestors” (lit., “fathers”), a quintessentially Pharisaic concept (see Phil 3.5). Josephus writes: “the Pharisees handed down to the people certain observances by succession from their fathers, which are not written in the laws of Moses” (
Ant
. 13.10.6 [297]). Cf. Mk 7.3–4. Rabbinic literature also refers to the sages of old as “fathers” (
m. Ed
. 1.4), but does not use the phrase “traditions of the fathers.” When the Mishnah refers to an ancient tradition it uses the term “devar soferim,” “a word of the scribes” (
m. Yebam
. 2.4,
m. Sanh
. 11.3).

1.15
–17: Paul’s call. 15
:
Before I was born
, lit., “from the womb of my mother,” see Jer 1.5; Isa 49.1.

16
:
Son
, Paul regularly refers to Jesus as “Son of God” (e.g., 4.4; Rom 8.3; 2 Cor 1.19; 1 Thess 1.10), even if he was also “of the line of David according to the flesh” (Rom 1.3).
To me
, lit., “in me” parallel to “in the Gentiles.”
Gentiles
(Gk “ethnē”), lit. “nations” (Heb “goyyim”). Following biblical usage, Paul divides humanity between Jews (or “Israel”) and Gentiles/the “nations” (e.g., 2.2) or “Greeks” (e.g., 2.3).
Any human being
, lit., “flesh and blood,” a frequent rabbinic expression for humans. Paul denies that his teaching has a human source; apparently his opponents accused him as lacking independent knowledge of God or Christ. Cf. 1.20n.

17
:
Go up to Jerusalem
, one ascends to Jerusalem (v. 18; 2.1), then the church’s headquarters, cf. 2.1.
Apostles before me
, who knew Jesus. Paul argues that his God-given authority is equal to theirs.
Arabia
, the Transjordan and the Negev.
Returned to Damascus
, Acts 9.8–25; 2 Cor 11.32–33.

1.18
–24: Paul’s independence. 18
:
Three years
, whether beginning with Paul’s revelation (1.15-16) or return to Damascus (1.17).
Visit Cephas
, not to study with him. Cephas, (Aram for “rock”), Paul’s usual name for Peter (Gk for “rock”). Paul too had a Semitic and a Greek name (Acts 13.9).
Fifteen days
, a brief period. Acts 9.26–30 has a different version of this visit.

19
:
James
(lit., “Jacob”), leader of the Jerusalem church (2.9; Acts 15.13; 21.18). Josephus describes his death (
Ant
. 20.9.1 [200]).

20
: Similar affirmations of veracity are in 1 Thess 2.5; 2 Cor 1.23; 11.31. Paul’s opponents apparently argued that Paul was subordinate to the Jerusalem apostles.

21
:
Syria and Cilicia
, far from Jerusalem. Tarsus, Paul’s hometown (Acts 9.11), is in Cilicia.

22
:
Churches
, see 1.2n.

2.1
–10: Paul meets with the apostles.
Acts 15 gives a different account of these events.

1
:
After fourteen years
, the date from which this is to be reckoned is not clear; cf. 1.18n. Paul again claims apostolic independence.
Jerusalem
, see 1.17n.
Barnabas
, Paul’s Jewish companion (Acts 4.36; 9.27; 11.22–30; 12.25; 13.1–15.39; 1 Cor 9.6).
Titus
, Paul brings Titus (2.3) to test the Jerusalem church’s acceptance of uncircumcised Gentiles.

2
:
Revelation
, either his original revelation (1.12), or a subsequent one; Paul clarifies that he was not summoned by the Jerusalem church.
Acknowledged leaders
, lit., “those who seem,” “those who are esteemed,” James, Cephas, and John, cf. 2.6,9.

3
:
Titus … was not compelled
, vindicating Paul’s insistence that Gentile believers need not follow Torah.
Greek
, Gentile. Cf. 3.28.

4
:
False believers
, lit., “false brothers,” cf. 2 Cor 11.26, who insisted that Gentile believers must be circumcised.
Secretly brought in
, lit., “intrusive, alien.” The Gk implies not stealth but inappropriateness or foreignness.
Freedom
enjoyed by believers is a major theme here (ch 5) and elsewhere (1 Cor 10.29; 2 Cor 3.17). The slavery (5.1; 1 Cor 7.22; 9.19) entails following Torah commandments.

5
:
We did not submit
, some versions omit “not”; this reading might explain Paul’s circumcision of Timothy (Acts 16.1–3) and the rumor Paul denies at 5.11.

6
:
Shows no partiality
, lit., “does not take the face of a person,” a biblical idiom describing the ideal judge, whether mortal or divine (e.g., Lev 19.15; Deut 10.17; 2 Chr 19.7; cf. Rom 2.11).
Contributed nothing
, perhaps “did not confer with me” (same word as in 1.16).

7
:
Had been entrusted
by God (2.8).
The uncircumcised
, lit., “the foreskinhood,” those who have a foreskin, Gentiles (cf. 5.6).
The circumcised
, lit., “the circumcision,” Jews. Cf. Eph 2.11, lit.,“Gentiles in the flesh, called ‘the foreskin’ by what is called ‘the circumcision.’”
M. Ned
. 3.11 presents the same contrast. Acts 10 depicts Peter as bringing the Gospel to Gentiles (cf. Mt 28.19), and Acts 13 depicts Paul as first evangelizing Jews.

9
:
John
, the son of Zebedee (Mk 1.19), Peter’s associate (Acts 3–4), not elsewhere mentioned by Paul.
Pillars
, a metaphor also found in rabbinic literature (
b. Ber
. 28b).
Right hand of fellowship
, our “shaking hands,” a gesture attested in 2 Kings 10.15; Ezra 10.19.

10
:
Asked only one thing
, the great compromise of Acts 15.20,29 is conspicuously missing.
Remember the poor
, Paul raises money for the Jerusalem “poor” (Rom 15.25–29; 1 Cor 16.1–3; 2 Cor 8–9), the church’s self-designation. The use of the plural term “the poor” as a self-designation may have its origins in the Psalms; see e.g., Ps 34.3; 147.6; 149.4. Giving money to the poor and raising money for the poor are paramount virtues in rabbinic piety (
t. Pe’ah
4.18–21;
Lev. Rab
. 5.4).

2.11
–14: Paul confronts Peter at Antioch. 12
:
James
, see 1.19n.
Eat with Gentiles
, on table-fellowship, see “Food and Table Fellowship,” p.
521
.
Fear of the circumcision faction
, lit., “fear of those from the circumcised,” that is, Jews.