The Psychology Book (87 page)

consequences in later life. He also

figure. The term he gave for this

argues that there is a critical period

tendency to attach to a female is

during which a mother and infant

“monotropy,” and he emphasized

should develop a secure attachment:

276 JOHN BOWLBY

Bowlby predicted that child

evacuees
would suffer long-term

attachment problems as a result of

enforced separation from their mothers;

later studies found this to be the case.

sanatorium (which offered no

substitute mothering) when they

had been less than four years old.

The children—aged seven to 13 by

the time of the study—were rougher

in play, showed less initiative and

more over-excitement, and were less

competitive than those with a more

traditional upbringing.

In extreme cases, Bowlby found

that maternal deprivation could even

result in “affectionless psychopathy,”

a clinical condition in which people

are unable to care deeply for others

The reason why this primary, secure

by supporting the mother financially

and so do not form meaningful

attachment is so important, Bowlby

and emotionally. The evolutionary

interpersonal relationships. Those

says, is that it is essential for the

basis of Bowlby’s theory suggests

who suffer from it display a higher

development of an inner working

that women are naturally inclined

incidence of juvenile delinquency

model or framework that the child

to be parents, with inborn maternal

and antisocial behavior without any

uses to understand himself, others,

instincts that guide them through

sign of remorse, since they are

and the world. This inner working

the process of child-rearing, whereas

unable to experience feelings of guilt.

model guides a person’s thoughts,

men are more naturally suited for

In Bowlby’s 1944 study of juvenile

feelings, and expectations in all of

being providers.

thieves, he found that many of the

his personal relationships, even into

However, British psychologist

young criminals had been separated

adulthood. Because the primary

Rudolph Schaffer—who worked

from their mothers for a period of

attachment serves as a prototype

under Bowlby at the Tavistock

more than six months before they

for all future relationships, the

Clinic in London—found that there

were five years old, and of these,

quality of the attachment will

is considerable cultural variation

14 had developed the condition of

determine whether or not a child

in the extent to which fathers are

affectionless psychopathy.

grows to trust others, view himself

involved in childcare. Increasing

as valuable, and feel confident in

numbers of fathers are taking on

society. These working models are

the role of principal parent, which

resistant to change; once formed,

suggests that parenting roles are

they determine how people behave

a consequence of social convention

and the kind of bond they will form

rather than biology.

with their own children.

Bowlby’s view implies that men

Attachment behavior is

will inevitably be inferior parents,

held to characterize

The father’s role

but research by Schaffer and the

human beings from the

Bowlby’s attachment theory has

American psychologist Ross Parke

cradle to the grave.

been criticized for exaggerating the

suggests that men are equally

John Bowlby

importance of the mother–child

capable of providing warmth and

relationship and undervaluing

sensitivity to their infants. They

the father’s contribution. Bowlby

also found that a child’s

sees the father as having no direct

developmental outcome is not

emotional significance for the

determined by the parent’s gender,

infant, contributing only indirectly

but rather by the strength and

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 277

mothers; they should stay with the

child, fulfilling the role of essential

primary caregiver. For decades

after Bowlby’s theory was posited,

generations of working women

were saddled with guilt, but many

Direct observations

studies since then have questioned

of men in their fathering

this aspect of Bowlby’s theory. For

role has shown them

instance, in the 1970s psychologists

to be as capable of as

Thomas Weisner and Ronald

much warmth and

Gallimore showed that mothers are

sensitivity as women.

the exclusive caregivers in only a

H. Rudolph Schaffer

very small percentage of human

societies, and it is not uncommon

Bowlby claimed that day care

for groups of people (including

centers
are not suitable for the care of

relatives and friends) to share

infants, because maternal deprivation

responsibility for raising children.

leads to juvenile deliquency; this created

Schaffer also points to evidence

a real dilemma for working mothers.

suggesting that children of mothers

quality of the bond that is forged.

who are happy in their work

have used Bowlby’s basic premise

In a further study, Schaffer and

develop more successfully than

to delve more deeply into childhood

psychologist Peggy Emerson found

children whose mothers are

attachment patterns, and to develop

that infants and young children

frustrated from staying at home.

theories of adult attachment by

display a wide range of attachment

exploring how the bond between

behaviors toward many people

Groundbreaking work

parent and child can influence the

besides their mothers, and that

Despite the many criticisms and

future bond between spouses and

multiple attachments may actually

revisions that it has provoked,

romantic partners. Bowlby’s

be the rule rather than the exception.

Bowlby’s work remains the most

theories have also had many

These later findings were

comprehensive and influential

beneficial effects on various

especially important for working

account of human attachment to

aspects of child-rearing, such as

women, because the implication of

date, and led to the groundbreaking

the improvement of institutional

Bowlby’s theories was that women

experiments of Harry Harlow and

care and the growing preference

should not work once they become

Mary Ainsworth. Psychologists

for fostering as an alternative. ■

John Bowlby

John Bowlby was the fourth of six

Longstaff, with whom he had

children born to a London-based,

four children. After the war he

upper-middle-class family. He was

became director of the Tavistock

raised primarily by nannies and

Clinic, where he remained until

sent to boarding school at the age

retirement. In 1950 he carried

of seven. These experiences made

out a major study for the World

him particularly sympathetic to

Health Organization. He died at

the attachment difficulties faced

his summer home on the Island

by young children. He studied

of Skye in Scotland, aged 83.

psychology at Trinity College,

Cambridge, then spent some time

Key works

teaching delinquent children. He

later earned a medical degree and

1951
Maternal Care and

qualified as a psychoanalyst.

Mental Health (WHO Report)

During World War II, Bowlby

1959
Separation Anxiety

served in the Royal Army Medical

1969, 1973, 1980
Attachment

Corps and in 1938 married Ursula

and Loss
(three volumes)

278

CONTACT COMFORT

IS OVERWHELMINGLY

IMPORTANT

HARRY HARLOW (1905–1981)

IN CONTEXT

APPROACH

M
any psychologists have

suggested that an infant

becomes attached to its

caregiver simply because that

Attachment theory

person fulfils its need for food. John

BEFORE

Bowlby challenged this “cupboard

love” idea theoretically, but Harry

1926
Sigmund Freud’s

Harlow set out to prove it.

psychoanalytic theory of

Harlow took infant macaque

“cupboard love” suggests that

monkeys from their mothers, placing

an infant becomes attached

them in cages with surrogate

to a caregiver because that

“mothers”—one made of wire with

person is a source of food.

a feeding bottle attached; the other

1935
Konrad Lorenz states

made of soft, cuddly, terry cloth, but

nonhumans form strong bonds

with no bottle. If the “cupboard

with the first moving object

love” theory was correct, the baby

Infant macaque monkeys
in

they meet—often the mother.

monkeys would remain with the

Harlow’s experiment formed a

mother that provided food. But in

strong attachment to their cuddly,

1951
John Bowlby argues that

fact, they spent most of their time

cloth, surrogate “mother,” despite her

human mothers and infants

inability to provide any nourishment.

with the cloth mother, using her as

are genetically programmed to

a secure base, and clinging to her

form a uniquely strong bond.

for safety when frightening objects

Harlow’s work was enormously

were placed in the cage. Later

important, because contemporary

AFTER

tests, in which the cloth mother

advice from psychologists and

1964
UK psychologists Rudolf

was also able to rock and provide

doctors had warned parents

Schaffer and Peggy Emerson

food, showed this attachment was

against rocking or picking up a