The Silk Road: A New History (57 page)

84.
S1366 and S2474, discussed in Feng Peihong, “Waijiao huodong,” 318.

85.
Jacques Gernet, “Location de chameaux pour des voyages, à Touen-huang,” in
Mélanges de sinologie offerts à Monsieur Paul Demiéville
(Paris: Institut des Hautes Études Chinoises, 1966), 1:41–51.

86.
Gernet, “Location de chameaux,” 45, French translation of document P3448.

87.
Hao Chunwen and Ning Ke,
Dunhuang sheyi wenshu jijiao
[Collected collations of the club documents from Dunhuang] (Shanghai: Jiangsu Guji Chubanshe, 1997).

88.
Ma De,
Dunhuang Mogaoku shi yanjiu
, 255–61.

89.
Trombert,
Le crédit à Dunhuang
, 27, 190.

90.
Rong Xinjiang, “Khotanese Felt and Sogdian Silver: Foreign Gifts to Buddhist Monasteries in Ninth- and Tenth-Century Dunhuang,”
Asia Major
, 3rd ser., 17, no. 1 (2004): 15–34; the Chinese version of the article appeared in
Siyuan caifu yu shisu gong-yang
, ed. Hu Suxin [Sarah E. Fraser] (Shanghai: Shanghai Shuhua Chubanshe, 2003), 246–60. The table on 31–34 in the
Asia Major
article is particularly useful; it lists all the commodities in each monastery and the documents mentioning them.

91.
I thank my colleague Peter Perdue for this formulation.

92.
Schafer, “Early History of Lead Pigments and Cosmetics,” 413–38, esp. 428.

93.
Zheng Binglin, “Wan Tang Wudai Dunhuang maoyi shichang de wailai shangpin jikao [A study of foreign commodities at the trade markets of Dunhuang in the late Tang dynasty and Five Dynasties period], in Zheng,
Dunhuang Guiyijun shi zhuanti yanjiu xubian
, 399.

94.
Corpus Inscriptionum Iranicarum
, part 2,
Inscriptions of the Seleucid and Parthian Periods and of Eastern Iran and Central Asia
, vol. 3,
Sogdian
, section 3,
Documents turco-sogdiens du IXe–Xe siècle de Touen-houang
, by James Hamilton and Nicholas Sims-Williams (London: Corpus Inscriptionum Iranicarum and School of Oriental and African Studies, 1990), 23; Takata, “Multilingualism in Tun-huang,” 51–52.

95.
Turco-Sogdian Document A (P3134), transcribed and analyzed in Hamilton and Nicholas Sims-Williams,
Documents turco-sogdiens
, 23–30.

96.
Vaissière,
Sogdian Traders
, 328–30.

97.
These have been translated by James Russell Hamilton in
Manuscrits ouïgours
.

98.
Hamilton,
Manuscrits ouïgours
, 176–78.

99.
Moriyasu Takao,
Shiruku Rōdo to Tō teikoku
[The Silk Road and the Tang Empire] (Tokyo: Kōdansha, 2007), 103–11.

100.
Stein,
Ruins of Desert Cathay
, 2:38, 68, 99.

CHAPTER 7

Mathew Andrews, Kumamoto Hiroshi, Prods Oktor Skjærvø, Nicholas and Ursula Sims-Williams, Wen Xin, Yoshida Yutaka, and Zhang Zhan all graciously answered queries and provided unpublished materials.

1.
For brief histories of Khotan, see Hiroshi Kumamoto, “Khotan ii. History in the Pre-Islamic Period,” in
Encyclopædia Iranica, Online Edition
, April 20, 2009, available online at
http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/khotan-i-pre-islamic-history
;
Corpus Inscriptionum Iranicarum
, part 2,
Inscriptions of the Seleucid and Parthian Periods and of Eastern Iran and Central Asia
, vol. 5,
Saka Texts
, section 6,
Khotanese Manuscripts from Chinese Turkestan in the British Library
, by Prods Oktor Skjærvø (London: British Library, 2002). Following scholarly convention, subsequent footnotes refer to this book as
Catalogue
.

2.
Huili,
Biography of the Tripiṭaka Master
, 164; “Da Tang Da Ci’en si Sanzang Fashi zhuan” [Biography of the Great Tang Tripitaka Master from the Great Ci’en Monastery], in
Taishō shinshū Daizōkyō
, text 2053, 50:251a.

3.
My discussion of the Shanpula site is based on a volume published by the Abegg Foundation in Switzerland, which contains extensive translations from Chinese sources and surveys all the earlier site reports in Chinese publications: Dominik Keller and Regula Schorta, eds.,
Fabulous Creatures from the Desert Sands: Central Asian Woolen Textiles from the Second Century BC to the Second Century AD
(Riggisberg, Switzerland: Abegg-Stiftung, 2001); see 37, fig. 39, for the saddle blanket, and 50, fig. 48, for a diagram of a cleaver-shaped pit, mentioned below.

4.
Stein,
Innermost Asia
, 1:127; 3:1022, 1023, 1027.

5.
Angela Sheng, personal communication, June 28, 2010.

6.
Elfriede Regina Knauer,
The Camel’s Load in Life and Death: Iconography and Ideology of Chinese Pottery Figurines from Han to Tang and Their Relevance to Trade
along the Silk Routes
(Zurich: Akanthus, 1998), 110. The dimensions of the full tapestry are 7.5 feet (2.3 m) long, 19 inches (48 cm) wide.

7.
Yu Taishan,
Xiyu zhuan
, 94–95; Ban,
Han shu
96A:3881; Hulsewé,
China in Central Asia
, 96–97.

8.
Following Joe Cribb, Helen Wang dates the Sino-Kharoṣṭhī coins to the first and second centuries
CE
:
Money on the Silk Road
, 37–38. Hiroshi Kumamoto, “Textual Sources for Buddhism in Khotan,” in
Collection of Essays 1993: Buddhism across Boundaries; Chinese Buddhism and the Western Regions
(Taibei: Foguangshan Foundation for Buddhist and Culture Education, 1999), 345–60, notes that the kings’ names do not match Chinese sources and dates them slightly later, to the second and early third centuries.

9.
Chu sanzang jiji
, 97a–b; Kumamoto, “Textual Sources for Buddhism in Khotan,” 345–60, esp. 347–48.

10.
This description of the site draws on Stein,
Ancient Khotan
, 2:482–506, and plate 40.

11.
Rhie,
Early Buddhist Art
, 276–322. See also the discussion of the nearby Keriya site in Debaine-Francfort and Idriss,
Keriya, mémoires d’un fleuve
, 82–107.

12.
Faxian,
Gaoseng Faxianzhuan
, 857b–c; Legge,
Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms
, 16–20.

13.
Aurel Stein,
Sand-buried Ruins of Khotan: Personal Narrative of a Journey of Archaeological and Geographical Exploration in Chinese Turkestan
(London: T. F. Unwin, 1903; repr., Rye Brook, NY: Elibron Classics, 2005), 202.

14.
Madhuvanti Ghose, “Terracottas of Yotkan,” in Whitfield and Ursula Sims-Williams,
Silk Road
, 139–41.

15.
Burrow,
Kharoṣṭhī Documents
, no. 661; in Stein’s numbering system, E.vi.ii.1. Stein,
Serindia
, 1:276. For a photograph and succinct discussion, see Ursula Sims-Williams, “Khotan in the Third to Fourth Centuries,” in Whitfield and Ursula Sims-Williams,
Silk Road
, 138. See also Thomas Burrow, “The Dialectical Position of the Niya Prakrit,”
Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies
8, no. 2–3 (1936): 419–35, esp. 430–35. The document may be a copy of an earlier document: Peter S. Noble, “A Kharoṣṭhī Inscription from Endere,”
Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies
6, no. 2 (1931): 445–55.

16.
Skjærvø,
Catalogue
, xxxviii–xl.

17.
Ursula Sims-Williams, “Hoernle, Augustus Frederic Rudolf,”
Encyclopædia Iranica
, Online Edition, December 15, 2004, available at
http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/hoernle-augustus-frederic-rudolf
.

18.
A. F. Rudolf Hoernle, “A Report on the British Collection of Antiquities from Central Asia, Part 1,”
Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal
70, no. 1 (1898): 32–33; Ronald E. Emmerick,
A Guide to the Literature of Khotan
, 2d ed. (Tokyo: International Institute for Buddhist Studies, 1992), 6n19.

19.
Skjærvø,
Catalogue
, lxx–lxxi.

20.
R. E. Emmerick, ed. and trans.,
The Book of Zambasta: A Khotanese Poem on Buddhism
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1968), order to Ysarkula (163), author’s note (9), women’s cunning arts (283), closing of chapter on women (285), palace of the gods (19).

21.
Dao Shi,
Fayuan zhulin
, a Buddhist encyclopedia compiled in 668, contains a section on lay women.
Taishō shinshū Daizōkyō
, vol. 53, text 2122, 443c–447a. Koichi Shinohara, personal communication, June 25, 2010.

22.
H. W. Bailey, “Khotanese Saka Literature,” in
The Cambridge History of Iran
, vol. 3,
The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods
, ed. Ehsan Yarshater, part 2 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 1234–35.

23.
Skjærvø,
Catalogue
, lxxiii; Emmerick,
Guide
, 4–5; Emmerick,
Book of Zambasta
, xiv–xix.

24.
Mauro Maggi, “The Manuscript T III S 16: Its Importance for the History of Khotanese Literature,” in
Turfan Revisited: The First Century of Research in the Arts and Cultures of the Silk Road
, ed. Desmond Durkin-Meisterernst et al. (Berlin: Reimer Verlag, 2004), 184–90, 547; dating of earliest manuscript on 184.

25.
The best account of this confusing period in English is Kumamoto, “Khotan.”

26.
Hedin,
My Life As an Explorer
, 188. In his first publications, Hedin referred to the site as “the ancient city Taklamakan”; later he used the name Dandan Uiliq. Stein,
Ancient Khotan
, 1:236.

27.
Stein,
Ancient Khotan
, 1:240.

28.
Stein,
Ancient Khotan
, 1:241.

29.
Christoph Baumer,
Southern Silk Road: In the Footsteps of Sir Aurel Stein and Sven Hedin
(Bangkok: Orchid Books, 2000), 76–90.

30.
Rong Xinjiang and Wen Xin, “Newly Discovered Chinese-Khotanese Bilingual Tallies,”
Journal of Inner Asian Art and Archaeology
3 (2008): 99–111, 209–15. The Chinese version of this article appeared in
Dunhuang Tulufan Yanjiu
11 (2008): 45–69, in an issue devoted to Khotanese studies.

31.
Rong and Wen, “Bilingual Tallies,” 100, tally no. 2.

32.
Yoshida Yutaka gives the most up-to-date translations for the Chinese and Khotanese names for grain grown in Khotan: “On the Taxation System of Pre-Islamic Khotan,”
Acta Asiatica
94 (2008): 95–126, esp. 118. This is the shorter English version of Yoshida’s important Japanese book
Kōtan shutsudo 8–9 seiki no Kōtango sezoku monjo ni kansuru oboegaki
[Notes on the Khotanese secular documents of the eighth to ninth centuries unearthed from Khotan] (Kobe, Japan: Kobe City University of Foreign Studies, Research Publications, 2006).

33.
Yoshida, “On the Taxation System,” 104n19.

34.
P. Oktor Skjærvø, “Legal Documents Concerning Ownership and Sale from Eighth Century Khotan,” manuscript of a forthcoming article. For the dating of these texts, see Prods Oktor Skjærvø, “The End of Eighth-Century Khotan in its Texts,”
Journal of Inner Asian Art and Archaeology
3 (2008): 119–38, particularly 129–31. For a useful chart summarizing these texts, see table 44, “Contracts,” in Helen Wang,
Money on the Silk Road
, 100.

35.
Or. 9268A; translated in Skjærvø, “Legal Documents,” 61, 63.

36.
Or. 9268B; translated in Skjærvø, “Legal Documents,” 65–66.

37.
Helen Wang,
Money on the Silk Road
, 95–106, esp. table 46, “Payments Made Part in Coin Part in Textiles,” 101. Yoshida thinks few coins were circulating in the 770s and 780s, the time of Archives no. 1 and no. 2: “On the Taxation System,” 117n43.

38.
Hoernle, “Report on the British Collection,” 16; Helen Wang,
Money on the Silk Road
, 103.

39.
The other archive at Dandan Uiliq is Archive no. 3, dating to 798, with several documents signed by an official named Sudārrjām whose rank was
ts
Ī
ṣ
Ī
spāta
(a higher position than simply a
spātā
), who signed documents with the Chinese character
fu
(literally “copy”) serving as his signature. Yoshida, “On the Taxation System,” 97–100.

40.
The chronology of this period has still not been definitively established. See Yoshida Yutaka, “The Karabalgasun Inscription and the Khotanese documents,” in
Literarische Stoffe und ihre Gestaltung in mitteliranischer Zeit
, ed. Desmond Durkin-Meisterernst, Christiane Reck, and Dieter Weber (Wiesbaden, Germany: Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag, 2009), 349–62, chronological chart on 361; Skjærvø, “End of Eighth-Century Khotan,” 119–44; Guangda Zhang and Xinjiang Rong, “On the Dating of the Khotanese Documents from the Area of Khotan,”
Journal of Inner Asian Art and Archaeology
3 (2008): 149–56; Moriyasu Takao, “Toban no Chūō shinshutsu” [The Expansion of Tibet into Central Asia],
Kanazawa Daigaku Bungakubu Ronshū
(shigakuka hen) 4 (1984): 1–85.

41.
Yoshida, “On the Taxation System,” 100, 117.

42.
Here I follow Yoshida, who explains the reasons for his view in “Karabalsagun Inscription,” 353–54.

43.
Yoshida, “On the Taxation System,” 112–13n35.

44.
Takeuchi,
Old Tibetan Contracts
, 118–19.