The Transformation of the World (201 page)

  52
. Nouzille,
Histoire de frontières
, p. 254. Cf. Hösch,
Balkanländer
, p. 91.

  53
. See the fine illustration in Ruthven and Nanji,
Historical Atlas of Islam
, p. 89.

  54
. On its conference activities after 1856, see Baumgart,
Europäisches Konzert
, pp. 155f.

  55
. One of the few recent exceptions is J. Fisch,
Europa
, pp. 228–35.

  56
. In perceptions of the Balkan see Mazower,
The Balkans
; Todorova,
Imagining the Balkans
.

  57
. This has been done for Scotland in Withers,
Geography
, pp. 142ff.; for Thailand in Thongchai,
Siam Mapped
; and for Mexico in Craib,
Cartographic Mexico
.

  58
. There is now an extensive literature on the phenomenology and psychology of spatial perception. One of the pioneers, Tuan Yi-fu, still stands out in the field, especially for his
Space and Place
.

  59
. Richter,
Facing East
, p. 11 and passim.

  60
. Rowe,
Saving the World
, p. 356.

  61
. Eggert,
Chinesische Reiseschriften
, p. 283.

  62
. J. K. Leonard,
Wei Yuan
, pp. 121ff.

  63
. Drake,
Hsu Chi-yü
, general appreciation on pp. 67f.

  64
. See Karl,
Staging the World
.

  65
. Toby,
State and Diplomacy
, pp. 161–67.

  66
. See Beasley,
Japan Encounters the Barbarian
; the vivid account of these efforts in Pantzer,
Iwakura-Mission
; and Duus,
Japanese Discovery of America
.

  67
. Konvitz,
Urban Millenium
, pp. 82–85.

  68
. Types (a) to (d) follow A.R.H. Baker,
Geography and History
, chs. 2–5, a fundamental work in this field.

  69
. This is the approach in traditional accounts of modern historical geography: e.g., Pounds,
Historical Geography
.

  70
. There is a noteworthy “island discourse” in historical geography: see the references to themes and literature in Dodds and Royle,
Rethinking Islands
. Cf. Pocock,
Discovery
, who defines the British Isles from the Channel Islands to the Shetlands as “the Atlantic archipelago” (p. 78).

  71
. Fernández-Armesto,
Civilizations
, passim. In the background here is Braudel's conception of “civilizations” as spaces:
History of Civilizations
. Another important author uses a regional rather than systematic approach: Richards,
Unending Frontier
.

  72
. See François Walter's major work
Les figures paysagères de la nation
.

  73
. A.R.H. Baker,
Geography and History
, p. 112.

  74
. This is one of the main theses in Elvin,
Elephants
.

  75
. Fundamental here is: Dunlap,
Nature
.

  76
. Cain and Hopkins,
British Imperialism
.

  77
. This is one of the key methodological ideas in the new comparative studies: see, e.g., Pomeranz,
Great Divergence
, pp. 10 and passim. On the possibilities of regional history (with special reference to identity), see Applegate,
Europe of Regions

  78
. Werdt,
Halyč-Wolhynien
, p. 98.

  79
. An example of the rapidly growing literature is: B. Klein and Mackenthun,
Sea Changes
.

  80
. Braudel,
Mediterranean
.

  81
. Horden and Purcell,
Corrupting Sea
, p. 25—a work that shares the order of magnitude of Braudel's classic.

  82
. C. King,
Black Sea
; Herlihy,
Odessa
; Farnie,
East and West of Suez
.

  83
. Horden and Purcell (
Corrupting Sea
, pp. 461 ff. and passim) are the foremost representatives of this “Mediterraneanism,” which has been opposed most notably in numerous writings by the American anthropologist Michael Herzfeld.

  84
. K. N. Chaudhuri,
Trade
; idem,
Asia
.

  85
. Cf. Wong, “Between Nation and World,” p. 7.

  86
. See J. de Vries, “Connecting Europe and Asia: A Quantitative Analysis of the Cape-Route Trade, 1497–1795,” in: Flynn et al.,
Global Connections
, pp. 35–106, at 69 (Tab. 2.5). A masterly essay.

  87
. On the many different forms of mobility, see: Bose,
A Hundred Horizons
. On Indian Ocean history in general, see Pearson,
Indian Ocean
.

  88
. Kirch,
On the Road
, pp. 293, 300, 302.

  89
. The classic on the Pacific is Spate,
Pacific
—once again the work of a historical geographer, though unfortunately stopping around 1800.

  90
. See the bleak balance sheet in Scarr,
Pacific Islands
, pp. 134–44.

  91
. See Flynn et al.,
Pacific Centuries
; E. L. Jones et al.,
Coming Full Circle
.

  92
. Korhonen,
Pacific Age
, p. 44.

  93
. See Heffer,
United States
, pp. 249ff.—which, despite its title, is actually a general history of the modern Pacific.

  94
. Crucial here is Brading,
First America
, pp. 447ff., which also helps to clarify the term “patriotism.”

  95
. See, for example, Zeuske,
Schwarze Karibik
.

  96
. For syntheses and surveys of the literature, see: Bailyn,
Atlantic History
; Pietschmann,
Atlantic History
; Armitage and Braddick,
British Atlantic World
; Benjamin,
Atlantic World
; Falola and Roberts,
Atlantic World
; Greene and Morgan,
Atlantic History
; Canny and Morgan,
Oxford Handbook of the Atlantic World
. The most exacting attempt at a theoretical synthesis has come from a sociologist: Jeremy Smith,
Europe and the Americas
.

  97
. See, above all, the work of Nicholas Canny and his circle.

  98
. By now we do have some “partial integrations,” though. Attempts have been made to define the “limits of the early modern world” in the northern and southern Atlantic by the reach of certain legal concepts: Gould,
A World Transformed?
; Benton,
Legal Regime
.

  99
. Figure from Bade et al.,
Encyclopedia of European Migration
, p. 210.

100
. P. D. Curtin,
Slave Trade
, p. 266 (Fig. 266), 268 (Tab. 77).

101
. Berlin,
Many Thousands Gone
, pp. 95ff.

102
. See here one of the great modern masters of Japanese historiography: Amino,
Les Japonais et la mer
, p. 235. Amino also stresses, however, that, despite the geographical similarities between the two countries, the Japanese never developed a maritime identity like that of the British.

103
. Lemberg, “
Zur Entstehung
,” esp. pp. 77ff.; Kirby,
Baltic World
, p. 5; Mead,
Scandinavia
, pp. 9–13, 210–12; J. Fisch,
Europa
, p. 148.

104
. On the diverse conceptions of Central Europe, see H.-D. Schultz,
Deutschlands “natürliche Grenzen”
; and idem,
Raumkonstrukte
. A map showing their various boundaries may be found in Dingsdale,
Mapping Modernities
, p. 18.

105
. For example, L. R. Johnson,
Central Europe
.

106
. Berend,
History Derailed
, p. xiv.

107
. Halecki,
Limits and Divisions
.

108
. Szücs,
Les trois Europe
. On the binary pattern of “two Europes,” see Valerie Bunce, “The Historical Origins of the East-West Divide: Civil Society, Political Science, and Democracy in Europe,” in: Bermeo and Nord,
Civil Society
, pp. 209–36.

109
. See Laruelle,
Russian Eurasianism
, pp. 16–49. Three further concepts of “Eurasia” are discussed in Schmidt-Glintzer,
Eurasien
, pp. 189–92.

110
. Hawes,
Poor Relations
, pp. 10f., 39, 152f., 168 (on Skinner); Stoler, Sexual Affronts.

111
. Buettner,
Empire Families
.

112
. Fletcher,
Integrative History
; Lieberman,
Binary Histories
; Lieberman,
Strange Parallels
, vol. 1, pp. 77–80; vol. 2, pp. 1–11 and passim.

113
. See Osterhammel,
Entzauberung Asiens
.

114
. See esp. Findley,
Turks
, chs. 2–3; and Wong,
Entre monde et nation
, pp. 18ff.

115
. See also Beckwith,
Empires of the Silk Road
, chs. 10, 11.

116
. Guy,
Qing Governors
, p. 31.

117
. The various contributions by the editor are fundamental in Skinner,
City
. On macroregions as social-historical entities, see Naquin and Rawski,
Chinese Society
, pp. 138–216.

118
. Meinig,
Shaping
, vol. 2, p. 3.

119
. Stefan Kaufmann, “Landschaft beschriften. Zur Logik des ‘American Grid System,'” in: idem,
Ordnungen der Landschaft
, pp. 73–94, quotation 78.

120
. Reardon-Anderson,
Reluctant Pioneers
, p. 72.

121
. Edney,
Mapping an Empire
, p. 200; Bayly,
Empire and Information
, pp. 303ff.; O'Cadhla,
Civilizing Ireland
.

122
. Lappo and Hönsch,
Urbanisierung Russlands
, p. 34.

123
. See Planhol,
Les fondéments
.

124
. See J. C. Scott,
Seeing Like a State
, pp. 37–47.

125
. See Maier,
Consigning the Twentieth Century
, pp. 808, 814, 816.

126
. Charles Tilly, “Reflections on the History of European State-Making,” in: idem,
Formation of National States
, pp. 3–83, at 15.

127
. Lieberman,
Strange Parallels
, vol. 1, p. 455, speaks of “three post-1750 consolidations of the mainland.”

128
. Ratzel,
Politische Geographie
, pp. 193ff.

129
. Kashani-Sabet,
Frontier Fictions
, p. 23.

130
. R. Cohen,
Global Diasporas
, pp. 26 and 177ff.

131
. Ibid., chs. 2–6.

132
. Takaki,
Mirror
, p. 247.

133
. Nadel,
Little Germany
, p. 10.

134
. The fashionable claim that a diaspora is inherently “deterritorialized” goes too far.

135
. Unfortunately we must pass over here contributions from the new field of “borderland studies.”

136
. On the concept, see Böckler,
Grenze
.

137
. Nordman,
Frontières
, pp. 486ff.

138
. T. M. Wilson and Donnan,
Introduction
, p. 25, also 9; Windler, “Grenzen vor Ort,” p. 143.

139
. Nordman,
Frontières
, p. 40.

140
. Bitsch,
Belgique
, p. 83.

141
. It is hard to find details about the state of the frontiers in Africa. But precise information about West Africa is contained in John D. Hargreaves, “The Berlin Conference, West African Boundaries, and the Eventual Partition,” in: Förster et al.,
Bismarck
, pp. 313–20, at 314–17.

142
. Foucher,
Fronts et frontières
, pp. 114, 135ff.

143
. Ibid., p. 122.

144
. The “natural” border is a special case of a content-defined frontier. See the fine general considerations in Burnett,
Masters
, pp. 208ff.

145
. Kashani-Sabet,
Frontier Fictions
, pp. 24–28.

146
. S.C.M. Paine,
Imperial Rivals
, pp. 90f.

147
. Thongchai,
Siam Mapped
, pp. 68–80: one of the most original works on the “construction” of spaces.

148
. Excellent (with many hints for further reading) are: Windler, “Grenzen vor Ort,” pp. 138–45; and Baud and Schendel,
Comparative History
, esp. 216ff.

CHAPTER IV: Mobilities

    1
. Khater,
Inventing Home
, pp. 52–63.

    2
. Rallu,
Les populations océaniennes
, p. 222.

    3
. Schmid,
Korea
, p. 101; Etemad,
Possessing the World
, p. 225.

    4
. Lavely and Wong,
Malthusian Narrative
, p. 719; and on the sources cf. J. Z. Lee and Wang,
One Quarter of Humanity
, pp. 149–57.

    5
. Calculated from Livi-Bacci,
World Population
, p. 31 (Tabs. 1–3).

    6
. See also the graphic illustration in McEvedy and Jones,
Atlas
, p. 349.

    7
. Livi-Bacci,
World Population
, p. 31 (Tabs. 1–3).

    8
. Bähr,
Bevölkerungsgeographie
, p. 217 (Tab. 23).

    9
. Bardet and Dupâquier,
Histoire des populations de l'Europe
, p. 469 (Tab. 84); Marvin McInnis, “The Population of Canada in the Nineteenth Century,” in: Haines and Steckel,
Population History
, pp. 371–432, at 373 (Tab. 9.1); M. Reinhard et al.,
Histoire générale
, pp. 391, 423, 426; R. V. Jackson,
Population History
, p. 27 (Tab. 6);
Meyers Großes Konversations-Lexikon
, vol. 12 (6
^th
ed. 1905), p. 695; vol. 18 (6
^th
ed. 1907), p. 185.