The Transformation of the World (204 page)

  57
. Jannetta,
Vaccinators
, pp. 71, 145.

  58
. Winkle,
Geißeln
, pp. 893f.; Smallman-Raynor and Cliff,
War Epidemics
, pp. 452–69.

  59
. Higman,
Slave Populations
, pp. 278f.

  60
. D. R. Hopkins,
Princes
, pp. 149–54.

  61
. John R. Shepherd, “Smallpox and the Patterns of Mortality in Late Nineteenth-Century Taiwan,” in: Liu Ts'ui-jung et al.,
Asian Population History
, pp. 270–91.

  62
. Kiple,
Human Disease
, pp. 403f.

  63
. D. R. Hopkins,
Princes
, pp. 194, 303.

  64
. Huerkamp,
Smallpox Vaccination
, pp. 622f.

  65
. D. R. Hopkins,
Princes
, pp. 186. 189.

  66
. Terwiel,
Acceptance
.

  67
. Much the same was observable in “internal peripheries” such as Hokkaido in northern Japan, where the central state presented itself as a “civilizer” of the indigenous Ainu population. See B. L.Walker,
Early Modern Japanese State
, esp. pp. 156f.

  68
. On the early history of medical bacteriology, see Gradmann,
Krankheit im Labor
, pp. 31ff.

  69
. Riley,
Rising Life Expectancy
, p. 113.

  70
. Iliffe,
East African Doctors
, p. 11.

  71
. Rosner,
Medizingeschichte Japans
, pp. 113–17; Nakayama,
Traditions
, pp. 197–200.

  72
. For the period up to the Opium War see L. L. Barnes,
Needles
.

  73
. S. Watts,
Epidemics
, p. 24.

  74
. On the practice of quarantine in the eighteenth century, see Panzac,
Quarantaines
, pp. 31–56 (ports), 61 (
cordon
in France), 67–78 (Balkan
cordon)
.

  75
. Winkle,
Geißeln
, pp. 498f.

  76
. For further details, see Panzac,
La peste
, pp. 134–73.

  77
. Even this figure paled in comparison with the losses from disease (three-quarters of all deaths) in the French expedition to Haiti in 1802. See Laurens,
L'Expédition d'Égypte
, p. 468.

  78
. Moltke,
Briefe
, pp. 146–51.

  79
. On the end of the plague in the Ottoman Empire, see Panzac,
La peste
, pp. 446ff., 509.

  80
. Panzac,
Quarantaines
, p. 79.

  81
. Bickford-Smith,
Cape Town
, p. 19.

  82
. The standard work is still Hirst,
Conquest of Plague
, esp. pp. 254ff., 378ff. On Australia cf. Christabel M. Young, “Epidemics and Infectious Diseases in Australia prior to 1914,” in: Charbonneau and Larose,
Mortalities
, pp. 207–27, at 216.

  83
. Terence H. Hull, “Plague in Java,” in: N. G. Owen,
Death
, pp. 210–34, at 210f.

  84
. Mollaret and Brossolet
, Alexandre Yersin
.

  85
. Papin,
Hanoi
, p. 252.

  86
. Jannetta,
Epidemics
, p. 194.

  87
. Benedict,
Bubonic Plague
, pp. 25f. The rest of this section draws on Benedict's outstanding study.

  88
. The following is based on Arnold,
Colonizing the Body
, pp. 200–239.

  89
. Ibid., p. 203.

  90
. Huber,
Unification of the Globe by Disease
?

  91
. Echenberg,
Pestis Redux
, pp. 432, 444f.

  92
. C. E. Rosenberg,
Cholera Years
, p. 38.

  93
. Kerrie L. MacPherson, “Cholera in China: An Aspect of the Internationalization of Infectious Disease,” in: Elvin and Liu Ts'ui-jung,
Sediments of Time
, pp. 487–519, at 498, 511. Cf. Harrison,
Climates and Constitutions
, pp. 190f. on the resistance in India to the water theory, which was viewed as simplistically monocausal.

  94
. Hamlin,
Cholera
, p. 3.

  95
. Koch,
Disease Maps
, chs. 6–11.

  96
. The approach of cholera to Western Europe from 1823 is impressively described in Dettke,
Die asiatische Hydra
, pp. 26ff.

  97
. Winkle,
Geißeln
, p. 191.

  98
. Bourdelais and Raulot,
Peur bleue
, p. 85.

  99
. C. E. Rosenberg,
Cholera Years
, p. 226.

100
. This was already argued in Strachey,
Eminent Victorians
, pp. 132–36.

101
. Smallman-Raynor and Cliff,
War Epidemics
, p. 417; Gruzinski,
Mexico
, p. 413; Echenberg,
Africa in the Time of Cholera
, pp. 56–59.

102
. Münch,
Stadthygiene
, pp. 134f.

103
. R. J. Evans,
Death in Hamburg
, pp. 285ff.

104
. Rodney Sullivan, “Cholera and Colonialism in the Philippines, 1899–1903,” in: MacLeod and Lewis,
Disease
, pp. 284–300, at 284.

105
. Snowden,
Naples
, pp. 247ff.

106
. Arnold,
Colonizing the Body
, p. 161.

107
. R. J. Evans,
Death in Hamburg
, pp. 293f.

108
. See Delaporte,
Disease
, pp. 10–18, 47ff., 97ff. (on the crisis of the sense of civilizational superiority), and Briese's monumental
Angst
.

109
. Echenberg,
Africa in the Time of Cholera
, p. 75.

110
. Vigier,
Paris
, pp. 76, 80, 85.

111
. Kudlick,
Cholera
, pp. 81ff.

112
. Arnold,
Colonizing the Body
, p. 178.

113
. Baldwin,
Contagion
, p. 140.

114
. Ibid., pp. 43–45.

115
. Ibid., p. 190.

116
. Kassir,
Beirut
, p. 112.

117
. On the example of Canada, see Bilson,
Darkened House
, pp. 8ff.

118
. An interesting work here is Igler,
Diseased Goods
, which also emphasizes the function of sailors as carriers. On medical and political views on invasion and quarantine see Harrison,
Medicine
, p 254–85.

119
. Virchow,
Sämtliche Werke
, vol. 4, pp. 357–482, quotation 374, on hunger and epidemic disease: 420ff.

120
. Smallman-Raynor and Cliff,
War Epidemics
, pp. 370ff.

121
. P. D. Curtin,
Disease
, p. 177.

122
. W. H. McNeill,
Plagues
, p. 261; P. D. Curtin,
Death by Migration
, p. 13.

123
. P. D. Curtin,
Death by Migration
, pp. 62–68.

124
. Bowler and Morus,
Making Modern Science
, p. 450.

125
. A superb characterization of this “hygienic moment” in nineteenth-century history, centered on the example of France, is: La Berge,
Mission and Method
.

126
. Tables in Easterlin,
Growth Triumphant
, pp. 161f.

127
. For a brilliant argument about the imperial consequences of this fact see J. R. McNeill,
Mosquito Empires
.

128
. S. W. Miller,
Environmental History
, p. 110; Sachs,
Tropical Underdevelopment
, pp. 15–18.

129
. D'Arcy,
People of the Sea
, p. 128.

130
. Winchester,
Crack
, pp. 259f., 271.

131
. J. A. Lockwood,
Locust
, pp. 83f.

132
. Winchester,
Krakatoa
.

133
. DeJong Boers,
Tambora 1815
, pp. 375–77, 382–85.

134
. Kaiwar,
Nature
, p. 25.

135
. Ali,
Punjab
, pp. 8–61; Beinart and Hughes,
Environment and Empire
, pp. 130–47. On the link between irrigation and malaria, see especially: Radkau,
Nature and Power
, pp. 127–31.

136
. See the Chinese case study: Schoppa,
Xiang Lake
.

137
. Amelung,
Der Gelbe Fluß
, pp. 1f., 28–37, 43f., 55; Esherick,
Boxer Uprising
, pp. 7ff.

138
. Amelung,
Der Gelbe Fluß
, pp. 379–81; cf. the somewhat different considerations in Elvin,
Elephants
, pp. 115–24.

139
. T. N. Srinivasan, “Undernutrition: Concepts, Measurements, and Policy Implications,” in: Osmani,
Nutrition
, pp. 97–120, at 97. On the emergence of “starvation” as a concept of “nutritional sciences” in the nineteenth century see Vernon,
Hunger
, ch. 4.

140
. Wilhelm Abel, “Landwirtschaft 1648–1800,” in: Aubin and Zorn,
Handbuch
, pp. 524f. Woolf,
Italy
, p. 279. Even the wealthy Netherlands had 60,000 deaths from starvation in the 1840s, with another 50,000 in Flanders.

141
. Wells,
Wretched Faces
.

142
. Tortella,
Modern Spain
, pp. 33f.; Yrjö Kaukiainen, “Finnland 1860–1913,” in: Fischer,
Handbuch
, vol. 5, p. 274.

143
. Nelson,
Bitter Bread
, pp. 117ff. on the relief measures.

144
. Devine,
Great Highland Famine
, pp. 33ff.

145
. The following is based on Daly,
Famine in Ireland
; Kinealy,
Death-Dealing Famine
; Kinealy,
Great Irish Famine
; O'Gráda,
Ireland
, pp. 173–209, and 85, 97; O'Gráda,
Ireland's Great Famine
; Clarkson and Crawford,
Feast
.

146
. Floud, et al.:
Changing Body
, p. 116.

147
. Robbins,
Famine in Russia
, pp. 3, 10, 176f.

148
. Robert McCaa, “The Peopling of Mexico from Origins to Revolution,” in: M. R. Haines and Steckel,
Population History
, pp. 241–304, at 288; Livi-Bacci,
Population
, pp. 68f.

149
. A.K.S. Lambton, “Land Tenure and Revenue Administration in the Nineteenth Century,” in: Avery et al.,
Cambridge History of Iran
, vol. 7, pp. 459–505, at 469.

150
. Gado,
Sahel
, pp. 67–88, 104.

151
. J. C. Miller,
Significance
, pp. 21, 23, 25–31.

152
. Zeleza,
Economic History of Africa
, pp. 35–40; Coquery-Vidrovitch,
Africa
, p. 32.

153
. Hayami,
Population
, pp. 142f.

154
. Harold Bolitho, “The Tempo Crisis,” in: J. W. Hall et al.,
Cambridge History of Japan
, vol. 5, pp. 116–67, at 117–20; Totman,
Early Modern Japan
, pp. 236–45, 511-18.

155
. Davis,
Holocausts
, p. 7 (figures).

156
. Wallace,
Wonderful Century
, p. 375.

157
. For data on individual famines (including minor ones), see also Bhatia,
Famines in India
.

158
. M. Davis,
Holocausts
, p. 50.

159
. Bhatia,
Famines in India
, pp. 241f.

160
. Ibid., p. 9.

161
. Ludden,
Agrarian History
, pp. 199–201. Especially important on the role of moneylenders (and the lack of government interference in their activity) is Hardiman,
Feeding the Baniya
, pp. 57–61, 272ff. More generally, cf. Seavoy,
Famine
, pp. 241–85. A plausible new interpretation in the light of Amartya Sen's “entitlement” approach is Chakrabarti,
Famine of 1896
–
1897
.

162
. The following is based on L. M. Li,
Fighting Famine in North China
, pp. 272–77. For the context, see ibid., chs. 8–10.

163
. Bohr,
Famine in China
, pp. 13–26.

164
. See the study Rankin,
Managed by the People
.

165
. See Will,
Bureaucracy
.

166
. Will and Wong,
Nourish the People
, pp. 75–92.

167
. Robert Tombs, “The Wars against Paris,” in: Förster and Nagler,
On the Road to Total War
, pp. 541–64, at 550.

168
. Crossley,
Orphan Warriors
, pp. 132f.

169
. Only a few brief remarks are possible here on this inexhaustible theme, which has been little discussed by historians. A still pioneering work is Bairoch, “Les trois révolutions agricoles”.

170
. Grigg,
Transformation
, p. 19 (tab. 2.2).

171
. Federico,
Feeding the World
, pp. 33f. (tab. 4.1).

172
. Ibid., pp. 18–19 (tab. 3.1, 3.2).

173
. Bairoch,
Victoires
, vol. 1, p. 278.

174
. Bray,
Rice Economies
, p. 95.

175
. Data collated from Pohl,
Aufbruch
, pp. 99ff.

176
. Wolfram Fischer, “Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft Europas 1850–1914,” in: Fischer,
Handbuch
, vol. 5, pp. 1–207, at 137f.; Grigg,
Transformation
, p. 19 (diag. 3.1.)

177
. On the concept, see Overton,
Agricultural Revolution
, ch. 1. There is a very broad term that denotes the overall transformation of rural societies in the wake of industrialization (as in Marx, Tawney, and the Hammonds), but that is not what is meant here.