The Transformation of the World (206 page)

    3
. Bairoch,
Cities and Economic Development
, pp. 19 ff., 93ff. applies the concept of urbanization as far back as the Ancient East.

    4
. E. Jones,
Metropolis
, p. 76.

    5
. Coquery-Vidrovitch,
History of African Cities
, pp. 263–79; P. B. Henze,
Layers of Time
, p. 154.

    6
. Geertz,
Local Knowledge
, p. 137.

    7
. Kanwar,
Imperial Simla
; D. Kennedy,
Magic Mountains
.

    8
. Kent,
Soul of the North
, p. 320.

    9
. Morse,
Japanese Homes
, pp. 12f.

  10
. Seidensticker,
Low City
, p. 263.

  11
. A masterful analysis of this process in Europe, considering all its aspects, is Lenger,
European Cities
in the Modern Era; for a concise quantitative overview of the major European regions see P. Clark,
European Cities and Towns
, pp. 221–35.

  12
. Lepetit,
Les villes
, p. 94.

  13
. Martin Daunton, “Introduction,” in: P. Clark,
Cambridge Urban History
, vol. 3, pp. 1–56, at 6ff.

  14
. Girouard,
English Town
, p. 190.

  15
. See Pike,
Subterranean Cities
. On the obsession with the Paris catacombs since Victor Hugo's time, see the literary study: Prendergast,
Paris
, pp. 74–101.

  16
. This often neglected point is emphasized in Dodgshon,
Society
, p. 159; a key work on the theory and history of infrastructural development is Grübler,
Infrastructures
, whose main focus is on intercity transportation. Cf. Laak,
Infra-Strukturgeschichte
.

  17
. An interesting argument in de Soto,
Mystery of Capital
is that the chronic undervaluation of urban land has been one reason for the “poverty” of the “third world.”

  18
. Chudacoff,
American Urban Society
, p. 37.

  19
. Chartier et al.,
La ville des temps modernes
, p. 567.

  20
. These important issues have rarely been given serious attention in economic and social history. But see the exemplary work: Day,
Urban Castles
.

  21
. Important here are: P. Clark,
British Clubs
; and Hardtwig,
Genossenschaft
. For China see Rankin,
Elite Activism
and the debate it triggered about the beginnings of a “public sphere” in China.

  22
. Lees,
Cities Perceived
, p. 79. In Walter Benjamin, who made this expression famous, it was of course more than a mere cliché.

  23
. David Ward and Olivier Zunz, “Between Rationalism and Pluralism: Creating the Modern City,” in: idem,
Landscape of Modernity
, pp. 3–15; Harvey,
Postmodernity
; Berman,
All That is Solid
.

  24
. J. de Vries, “Problems in the Measurement, Description, and Analysis of Historical Urbanization,” in: Woude et al.,
Urbanization
, pp. 43–60, at 44. This article is an excellent introduction to the theory of urbanization.

  25
. Hohenberg and Lees,
Making of Urban Europe
, pp. 200–205.

  26
. Reulecke,
Urbanisierung in Deutschland
, pp. 11f.

  27
. Hohenberg and Lees,
Making of Urban Europe
, p. 244.

  28
. Bairoch,
Cities and Economic Development
, pp. 258ff.

  29
. E. A. Wrigley, “A Simple Model of London's Importance in Changing English Society and Economy, 1650–1759,” in: idem,
People
, pp. 133–56, quotation on p. 146 (first published in 1967).

  30
. Martin Daunton, “Introduction,” in: P. Clark,
Cambridge Urban History
, vol. 3, pp. 1–56, at 42.

  31
. Gerhard Melinz and Susan Zimmermann, “Großstadtgeschichte und Modernisierung in der Habsburgermonarchie,” in idem,
Wien–Prag–Budapes
t, pp. 15–33, at 23.

  32
. Daniel R. Brower, “Urban Revolution in the Late Russian Empire,” in: Hamm,
City in Late Imperial Russia
, pp. 319–53, at 325.

  33
. Adler,
Yankee Merchants
, pp. 1, 4 and passim.

  34
. Olsen,
City
, p. 4.

  35
. Still the classic text on the world history of the city is: Mumford,
The City in History
, even though—or because—many of its judgments invite contradiction. An equally ambitious work is: P. Hall,
Cities in Civilization
.

  36
. Inwood,
London
, pp. 270, 411; P. Clark,
Cambridge Urban History
, vol. 2, p. 650 (Tab. 19.1). Bairoch,
Cities and Economic Development
, p. 81, thinks that Rome may have reached a total of 1.3 million—as much as the largest European city in 1823.

  37
. A. F. Weber,
Growth of Cities
, p. 122.

  38
. T. Chandler and Fox,
3000 Years
, p. 313.

  39
. Ibid., p. 321.

  40
. Ibid., p. 323; P. Clark,
European Cities and Towns
, p. 131 (tab. 7.2).

  41
. On the 1790s as the decade of New York's great surge, see Burrows and Wallace,
Gotham
, pp. 333–38.

  42
. A. F. Weber,
Growth of Cities
, p. 139.

  43
. Kumar,
Java
, p. 180.

  44
. Maddison,
Chinese Economic Performance
, p. 35, which for China supports itself on Gilbert Rozman.

  45
. Gilbert Rozman, “East Asian Urbanization in the Nineteenth Century: Comparisons with Europe,” in: Woude et al.,
Urbanization
, p. 65, Tab. 4.2b.

  46
. Ibid., p. 64, tab. 4.1a/4.1b.

  47
. Bairoch in: Bardet and Dupâquier,
Histoire des populations de l'Europe
, pp. 212 (tab. 21).

  48
. J. de Vries,
European Urbanization
, pp. 28, 39, 258f.

  49
. Ibid., p. 84.

  50
. Jan de Vries, “Problems in the Measurement, Description, and Analysis of Historical Urbanization,” in: Woude et al.,
Urbanization
, pp. 43–60, at 58f.; H. S. Klein,
Population History
, pp. 142f.

  51
. Lappo and Hönsch,
Urbanisierung Russlands
, p. 38; Goehrke,
Russischer Alltag
, p. 290. See also Hildermeier,
Bürgertum
, pp. 603f.

  52
. Paul Bairoch, “Une nouvelle distribution des populations: Villes et campagnes,” in: Bardet and Dupâquier
Histoire des populations de l'Europe
, pp. 193–229, at 204f.

  53
. Palairet,
Balkan Economies
, pp. 28f.

  54
. Skinner,
Chinese Society
, pp. 68ff.

  55
. Anthony Reid, “South-East Asian Population History and the Colonial Impact,” in: Liu Ts'ui-jung et al.,
Asian Population History
, pp. 45–62, at 55.

  56
. In 1910 Bangkok was twelve times larger than Siam's second city: C. J. Baker and Phongpaichit,
History of Thailand
, p. 99.

  57
. Doeppers,
Philippine Cities
, pp. 783f., 791f.

  58
. Narayani Gupta, “Urbanism in South India: Eighteenth–Nineteenth Centuries,” in: Banga,
City in Indian History
, pp. 121–47, at 137f., 142; Mishra,
Economic History
, p. 23. Ramachandran,
Urbanization
, pp. 61f.

  59
. The following figures draw mostly on Chandler and Fox,
3000 Years
, passim.

  60
. M. Reinhard et al.,
Histoire générale
, p. 426.

  61
. Hofmeister,
Australia
, pp. 54, 64–67.

  62
. Monkkonen,
America Becomes Urban
, p. 70.

  63
. Ibid., p. 81.

  64
. A. F. Weber,
Growth of Cities
, p. 450.

  65
. Chudacoff,
American Urban Society
, p. 36.

  66
. Monkkonen,
America Becomes Urban
, p. 85.

  67
. Abu-Lughod,
New York
, p. 134.

  68
. Boyer and Davis,
Urbanization
, p. 7 (Tab. 2).

  69
. A. F. Weber,
Growth of Cities
, p. 450.

  70
. Bairoch,
Cities and Economic Development
, p. 217.

  71
. Bardet and Dupâquier
Histoire des populations de l'Europe
, pp. 193–229, at 227 (Tab. 24); Karpat,
Ottoman Population
, p. 103 (Tab. 5.3).

  72
. Ruble,
Second Metropolis
, pp. 15f., 25.

  73
. T. O. Wilkinson,
Urbanization of Japanese Labor
, pp. 63–65.

  74
. Hohenberg and Lees,
Making of Urban Europe
, p. 42; Meinig,
Shaping of America
, vol. 2, pp. 318–21.

  75
. Kassir,
Beirut
, pp. 110ff.

  76
. This point follows C. Tilly,
Coercion
, p. 51; it is more sharply expressed by Tilly in C. Tilly and Blockmans,
Cities
, p. 6; cf. Hohenberg and Lees,
Making of Urban Europe
, pp. 169ff.

  77
. Lemon,
Dreams
, p. 78; G. B. Nash,
First City
, pp. 45ff.

  78
. Hohenberg and Lees,
Making of Urban Europe
, p. 241.

  79
. Coquery-Vidrovitch,
History of African Cities
, pp. 226–27.

  80
. Kaffir,
Beirut
, pp. 28, 110f., 122f.; Hanssen,
Beirut
, pp. 84ff.

  81
. Cf. Lepetit,
Les villes
, p. 51.

  82
. George Modelski, “World Cities in History,” in: W. H. McNeill,
Berkshire Encyclopedia
, vol. 5, pp. 2066–73, at 2066.

  83
. Braudel,
Civilization and Capitalism
, vol. 3, pp. 21ff.

  84
. See Sassen,
Global City
.

  85
. Paul Knox, “World Cities in a World System,” in: Knox and Taylor,
World Cities
, pp. 3–20, at 12.

  86
. Snouck Hurgronje,
Mekka
, p. 7.

  87
. Coquery-Vidrovitch,
History of African Cities
, p. 236.

  88
. See the exemplary analysis: David D. Buck, “Railway City and National Capital: Two Faces of the Modern in Changchun,” in: Esherick,
Remaking the Chinese City
, pp. 65–89. “National capital” refers to the fact that from 1932 to 1945 Changchun was the capital of the Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo. On Nairobi: Karl Vorlaufer, “Kolonialstädte in Ostafrika. Genese, Funktion, Struktur, Typologie,” in: Gründer and Johanek,
Kolonialstädte
, pp. 145–201, at 164f.

  89
. Mommsen,
Das Ringen um den nationalen Staat
, p. 230.

  90
. Shannon,
Gladstone
, vol. 2, p. 572.

  91
. Girouard,
English Town
, pp. 289–91.

  92
. Walton,
English Seaside Resort
, pp. 5ff. and passim.

  93
. Collier and Sater,
Chile
, pp. 76–80, 161.

  94
. See the exemplary history of the city: Rohrbough,
Aspen
, esp. pp. 13, 288 ff.

  95
. J. M. Price,
Economic Function
.

  96
. Mantran,
Istanbul
, p. 258.

  97
. Bled,
Wien
, pp. 183f.

  98
. Coquery-Vidrovitch,
History of African Cities
, pp. 291–300.

  99
. K. Schultz,
Tropical Versailles
, pp. 101ff.

100
. Raymond,
Cairo
, pp. 300f.

101
. Perkins,
Modern Tunisia
, p. 14.

102
. Letter from London, October 15, 1826, in: Pückler-Muskau,
Briefe eines Verstorbenen
, p.432.

103
. Kuban,
Istanbul
, p. 379.

104
. Naquin,
Peking
, p. 684. A good new history of the city is: L. M. Li et al.,
Beijing
.

105
. Dong,
Republican Beijing
, pp. 90–100 on “tourist Beijing.”

106
. Berelowitch and Medvedkova,
Saint-Pétersbourg
, pp. 317f.

107
. See Reps,
Making of Urban America
, pp. 240–62.

108
. Dickens,
American Notes
, p. 129.

109
. Gerhard Brunn, “Metropolis Berlin. Europäische Hauptstädte im Vergleich,” in: Brunn and Reulecke,
Metropolis
, pp. 1–39, at 13f.; P. Hall,
Cities in Civilization
, pp. 377, 386.

110
. Kenneth T. Jackson, “The Capital of Capitalism: The New York Metropolitan Region, 1890–1940,” in: Sutcliffe,
Metropolis
, pp. 319–53, at 347.

111
. Ball and Sunderland,
Economic History of London
, p. 313.

112
. A recent general account rejects the idea of London's decline as an industrial city in the nineteenth century: ibid., pp. 55–66, esp. 65; cf. Martin Daunton, “Introduction,” in: P. Clark,
Cambridge Urban History
, vol. 3, pp. 1–56, at 45.

113
. A first-rate piece is R. J. Morris, “The Industrial Town,” in: Waller,
English Urban Landscape
, pp. 175–208; for data across Europe see P. Clark,
European Cities and Towns
, pp. 246f.