The Transformation of the World (209 page)

  21
. J. F. Richards,
Unending Frontier
, pp. 5f.

  22
. P. D. Curtin,
Location
, pp. 49ff.; on Australia's frontier history see Rowley,
Destruction
.

  23
. Adelman,
Frontier Development
, pp. 21, 96.

  24
. Rohrbough,
Days of Gold
, p. 1; E. West,
Contested Plains
, p. xv. On the social history of gold digging, see Finzsch,
Goldgräber
; and for the general context, cf. Nugent,
Into the West
, pp. 54–65.

  25
. Hine and Farragher,
American West
, pp. 36–38, 71–73, 79; and the detailed D. J. Weber,
Spanish Frontier
.

  26
. Prucha,
Great Father
, pp. 181ff.; Banner,
How the Indians
, pp. 228–56.

  27
. This is a hallmark of the school of historians around William Appleman Williams, summarized in Waechter,
Erfindung
, pp. 318–28. For a good development of this approach by a French historian, see Heffer,
The United States and the Pacific
.

  28
. A recent attempt at stock taking (with an introductory bibliography) is Stephen Aron, “Frontiers, Borderlands, Wests,” in: Foner and McGirr,
American History Now
, pp. 261–84.

  29
. Jennings,
Founders of America
, p. 366.

  30
. Hurtado,
Indian Survivals
, p. 1.

  31
. See Dowd,
A Spirited Resistance
.

  32
. Hämäläinen,
Plains Indian Horse Cultures
, summarizes the conventional story and adds his own interpretation.

  33
. E. West,
Contested Plains
, p. 78.

  34
. Hurt,
Indian Agriculture
, p. 63.

  35
. Isenberg,
Destruction of the Bison
, pp. 25f.

  36
. On this energy argument, see E. West,
Contested Plains
, p. 51.

  37
. Hämäläinen,
Comanche Empire
, pp. 240f., quotation 241.

  38
. Utley,
Indian Frontier
, p. 29.

  39
. On the mobility at the heart of the Indian way of life, see Cronon,
Changes in the Land
, pp. 37f. and passim.

  40
. Kavanagh,
Comanche Political History
; Hämäläinen,
Comanche Empire
.

  41
. Krech,
Ecological Indian
, esp. pp. 123–49 on the tension between conservation and dissipation in the Indians' relationship to the bison.

  42
. Isenberg,
Destruction of the Bison
, p. 83.

  43
. Hämäläinen,
Plains Indian Horse Cultures
, p. 844. The Lakota-Sioux in the North were more successful in finding an equilibrium and were therefore able to resist Euro-American encroachment for a few more decades (p. 859).

  44
. Isenberg,
Destruction of the Bison
, pp. 121, 129, 137, 139f.

  45
. Farragher,
Sugar Creek
, pp. 22f.

  46
. Nugent,
Into the West
, p. 24.

  47
. Walsh,
American West
, p. 46 (Tab. 3.1).

  48
. Unruh,
The Plains Across
.

  49
. Limerick,
Legacy of Conquest
, p. 94.

  50
. Faragher,
Sugar Creek
, p. 51.

  51
. Danbom,
Born in the Country
, pp. 87, 93.

  52
. Nugent,
Into the West
, pp. 83–85.

  53
. Gutiérrez,
Walls and Mirrors
, p. 14; Walsh,
American West
, p. 62. In 1900 there were as many as 500,000 people of Mexican origin in the Southwest.

  54
. Walsh,
American West
, pp. 58ff., esp. 68; Limerick,
Legacy of Conquest
, p. 260.

  55
. For greater detail: Walsh,
American West
, p. 27.

  56
. Paul,
Far West
, pp. 189, 199f.; Hennessy,
Frontier in Latin American History
, p. 146.

  57
. See the illustrated volume: Axelrod,
Chronicle
.

  58
. Unruh,
The Plains Across
, pp. 189, 195–98.

  59
. Clodfelter,
Dakota War
, pp. 2, 66f.

  60
. Ibid., p. 16.

  61
. For a map of the military frontier, see Howard R. Lamar and Sam Truett, “The Greater Southwest and California from the Beginning of European Settlement to the 1880s,” in: Trigger and Washburn,
Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas
vol. 1, pt. 2, pp. 57–115, at 88f.

  62
. Vandervort,
Indian Wars
. The Indian experience in the generation of the Indian wars is vividly presented in the biography: Utley,
Sitting Bull
.

  63
. See Peter Way, “The Cutting Edge of Culture: British Soldiers Encounter Native Americans in the French and Indian War,” in: Daunton and Halpern,
Empire and Others
, pp. 123–48.

  64
. Richard Maxwell Brown, “Violence,” in: Milner et al.,
American West
, pp. 293–425, at 396, 399, 412f., 416; cf. R. M. Brown,
No Duty to Retreat
, pp. 41, 44, 48 and passim. Others have countered Brown's grim view, arguing that everyday life on the frontier was much less violent than in American inner cities today.

  65
. Richter,
Facing East
, p. 67.

  66
. On the early treaties see Prucha,
Great Father
, pp. 7, 19ff., also 140f., 165ff.

  67
. Ibid., p. 44.

  68
. Quoted in Hine and Faragher,
American West
, p. 176.

  69
. Rogin,
Fathers and Children
.

  70
. Richter,
Facing East
, pp. 201–8, 235f.

  71
. J. L. Wright,
Creeks
, p. 282.

  72
. Hine and Faragher
, American West
, pp. 179f. Today the Seminole tribe of Florida is very active in business. In 2006 they bought the worldwide Hard Rock Café chain.

  73
. Utley,
Indian Frontier
, pp. 59f.; Prucha,
Great Father
, p. 97.

  74
. Prucha,
Great Father
, p. 83, and Prucha's account of the Indian removal, pp. 64ff.

  75
. Hine and Faragher,
American West
, p. 231.

  76
. Michael D. Green, “The Expansion of European Colonization to the Mississippi Valley, 1780–1880,” in: Trigger and Washburn,
Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas
, vol. 1, pt. 1, pp. 461–538, at 533.

  77
. On the continuing Apache resistance, see Vandervort,
Indian Wars
, pp. 192–210.

  78
. Limerick,
Something in the Soil
, pp. 36–64. See the depressing description of the Comanche's defeat and decline in Hämäläinen,
Comanche Empire
, chs. 7–8.

  79
. On the history of barbed wire, see Krell,
The Devil's Rope
, at p. 12.

  80
. Nugent,
Into the West
, p. 100; Hine and Farraghar,
American West
, pp. 324ff.

  81
. Meinig,
Shaping of America
, vol. 2, p. 100.

  82
. Utley,
Indian Frontier
, p. 60.

  83
. Perdue,
China Marches West
, pp. 292–99.

  84
. Prucha,
Great Father
, p. 186; an excellent case study is Monnett,
Tell Them We Are Going Home
.

  85
. Careless,
Frontier and Metropolis
, p. 41. On relations between whites and Indians in Canada, see J. R. Miller,
Skyscrapers
.

  86
. Cronon,
Changes in the Land
, pp. 65f., 69.

  87
. The most comprehensive debate on communal ownership in this period took place in Russia. See Kingston-Mann,
In Search of the True West
.

  88
. Hurt,
Indian Agriculture
, p. 68.

  89
. Jennings,
Founders of America
, pp. 304f.

  90
. Hurt,
Indian Agriculture
, pp. 78f., 84f., 90–92.

  91
. This has been splendidly done in Parker,
Native American Estate
.

  92
. M. D. Spence,
Dispossessing the Wilderness
.

  93
. That there were many frontiers is clear from the case studies in Guy and Sheridan,
Contested Ground
. In Argentina, long before F. J. Turner, Domingo Fausto Sarmiento developed his own theory of the frontier: see Sarmiento,
Civilization and Barbarism
, and Navarro Floria,
Sarmiento
.

  94
. See K. L. Jones,
Warfare
.

  95
. Hennessy,
Frontier in Latin American History
, p. 84.

  96
. Garavaglia,
Les hommes de la pampa
, p. 396.

  97
. Amaral,
Rise of Capitalism
, pp. 286f.

  98
. Hennessy,
Frontier in Latin American History
, pp. 19, 92; Hoerder,
Cultures in Contact
, p. 359.

  99
. An especially acute social-historical account of the gaucho, focused on southern Brazil rather than Argentina, may be found in Ribeiro and Rabassa,
Brazilian People
, pp. 293–303.

100
. Another genealogical root is the North American “pathfinder,” whose heyday was between 1820 and 1840: see Bartlett,
New Country
, p. 88.

101
. Slatta,
Gauchos
, pp. 2, 5, 9, 22, 35, 180ff. A comparative history of cowboys in the Americas is Slatta,
Cowboys
.

102
. Lombardi,
Frontier
, is a useful introduction.

103
. Amado et al,
Frontier in Comparative Perspective
, p. 18.

104
. Bernecker et al.,
Geschichte Brasiliens
, p. 181.

105
. Walter Nugent, “Comparing Wests and Frontiers,” in: C. A. Milner et al.,
American West
, pp. 828f.

106
. See esp. vol. 2 of the trilogy: Hemming,
Amazon Frontier
. Langfur,
Forbidden Lands
, has now broken new ground methodologically for the period before 1830.

107
. Norman Etherington et al., “From Colonial Hegemony to Imperial Conquest,” in: Hamilton et al.,
Cambridge History of South Africa
, vol. 1, pp. 319–91, at 384.

108
. See Gump,
Dust
.

109
. Fundamental for the 1820s and 1830s in South Africa is Etherington,
Great Treks
, esp. chs. 5–9.

110
. J. Fisch,
Geschichte Südafrikas
, pp. 138f.

111
. Giliomee,
Afrikaners
, pp. 186–90.

112
. Leonard Thompson and Howard Lamar, “The North American and Southern African Frontiers,” in idem,
Frontier in History
, pp. 14–40, at 29.

113
. This is a central theme in Feinstein,
Economic History of South Africa
.

114
. Allister Sparks,
The Mind of South Africa
(London 1991), quoted in Maylam,
South Africa's Racial Past
, p. 55.

115
. Ibid., pp. 51–66.

116
. P. D. Curtin,
Location
, p. 67.

117
. Ibid., pp. 74–76, 87–90; for a clear discussion of Boer evaluations and objectives, see Nasson,
South African War
, pp. 47–49.

118
. See Fredrickson,
White Supremacy
, pp. 179–98.

119
. On the concept of Eurasia, see
chapter 3
, above, and von Hagen,
Empires
, esp. pp. 454ff.

120
. See, for example, Markovitz et al.,
Society and Circulation
.

121
. Barfield,
Nomadic Alternative
, pp. 7–9, passim.

122
. Khazanov,
Nomads
, pp. 198–227.

123
. See the synthetic discussion in Perdue,
China Marches West
, pp. 524–32.

124
. Findley,
Turks
, p. 93.

125
. See the overview in Osterhammel,
China
, pp. 86–105.

126
. J. A. Millward,
Eurasian Crossroads
, esp. chs. 4–5.

127
. See S.C.M. Paine,
Imperial Rivals
, chs. 4–6.

128
. Rogan,
Frontiers of the State
, pp. 9–12; Kieser,
Der verpasste Friede
, pp. 24, 43–44.

129
. There are good overviews in the collective volume Brower and Lazzerini,
Russia's Orient
, and the concise Moshe Gammer, “Russia and the Eurasian Steppe Nomads: An Overview,” in: Amitai and Biran,
Mongols
, pp. 483–502.

130
. Seely,
Russian-Chechen Conflict
, p. 32. The standard work on the Caucasus is still Gammer,
Muslim Resistance
.

131
. LeDonne,
Russian Empire
: a geopolitical study of the Tsarist Empire, a little schematic in its division of the western, southern, and eastern frontiers.

132
. Khodarkovsky,
Russia's Steppe Frontier
, pp. 137–38.

133
. From 1819 the war against the Chechens has been described as “mass terrorism bordering on genocide”: Seely,
Russian-Chechen Conflict
, p. 34.

134
. Overviews: LeDonne,
Russian Empire
; D. Lieven,
Empire
, pp. 208–13; Kappeler,
Russian Empire
, pp. 114ff..