The Transformation of the World (215 page)

  75
. J. Lynch,
Simón Bolívar
, p. 122.

  76
. Graham,
Independence
, pp. 142f.

  77
. J. Lynch,
Simón Bolívar
, p. 105.

  78
. Ibid., p. 147.

  79
. On the (post-) revolutionary militarization of Latin America, see Halperin-Donghi,
Aftermath
, pp. 17–24.

  80
. Colin Lewis, “The Economics of the Latin American State: Ideology, Policy and Performance, c. 1820–1945,” in A. A. Smith et al.,
States
, pp. 99–119, at 106.

  81
. Finzsch,
Konsolidierung
, pp. 25ff.

  82
. Ibid., pp. 596f.; D. B. Davis,
Inhuman Bondage
, p. 262.

  83
. Pilbeam,
1830 Revolution
, esp. p. 149.

  84
. On one such case from the French Pyrenees in 1829–31: P. Sahlins,
Forest Rites
.

  85
. A good overview of this “exit” process in France is Jourdan,
La révolution
, pp. 71–83.

  86
. Woloch,
New Regime
, pp. 380–426.

  87
. Dominguez,
Insurrection
, pp. 227f.

  88
. Breen,
Marketplace
, esp. pp. 235ff.

  89
. See R. G. Kennedy,
Orders from France
; also Roach,
Cities of the Dead
.

  90
. “Life of Napoleon Buonaparte,” in:
The Complete Works of William Hazlitt
, vol. 13, ed. by P. P. Howe, London 1931, p. 38.

  91
. Brading,
First America
, pp. 583–602.

  92
. See the anthology: Bello,
Selected Writings
.

  93
. See Gould,
A World Transformed?
, and several contributions in Gould and Onuf,
Empire and Nation
.

  94
. On the reception of the European Enlightenment, see May,
Enlightenment in America
, although its periodization is rather overschematic.

  95
. J. Lynch,
Simón Bolívar
, p. 28.

  96
. J. Lynch,
Spanish American Revolutions
, p. 27.

  97
. This is the main theme in Liss,
Atlantic Empires
, which despite its title is a study of the ideas of American political economy.

  98
. Gough,
Terror
, p.77.

  99
. John Lynch speaks of the ten year war in Venezuela as “a total war of uncontrolled violence”:
Spanish American Revolutions
, p. 220.

100
. Conway,
British Isles
, pp. 43f.

101
. Langley,
The Americas
, p. 61.

102
. Royle,
Revolutionary Britannia?
, pp. 67f.

103
. Hilton,
A Mad, Bad, and Dangerous People?
, p. 421.

104
. For a full account, see Hochschild,
Bury the Chains
.

105
. This aspect is discussed in greater detail in
chapter 17
, below.

106
. L. S. Kramer,
Lafayette
, pp. 113f.

107
. Jourdan,
La révolution
, p. 357.

108
. Beck,
Alexander von Humboldt
, vol. 1, pp. 223f.; ibid., vol. 2, pp. 2f., 194–200 (Humboldt 1848).

109
. Other protest movements requiring detailed analysis would include the Mahdi uprising of Bu Ziyan in the Algerian Atlas in 1849: see Clancy-Smith,
Rebel and Saint
, pp. 92–124.

110
. For an all-European perspective, see Hachtmann,
Epochenschwelle
; Mommsen,
1848
; Sperber,
European Revolutions
—the best overall account; and many individual contributions in Dowe et al.,
Europe in 1848
.

111
. John Breuilly, “1848: Connected or Comparable Revolutions?” in Körner,
1848
, pp. 31–49, at 34f.

112
. Dieter Langewiesche, “Kommunikationsraum Europa. Revolution und Gegenrevolution,” in idem,
Demokratiebewegung
, pp. 11–35, at 32.

113
. This is brilliantly demonstrated in Ginsborg,
Daniele Manin
—one of the classic works on 1848–49.

114
. Mommsen,
1848
, p. 300.

115
. Sperber,
European Revolutions
, p. 62.

116
. Ibid., p. 124.

117
. Blum,
End of the Old Order
, p. 371.

118
. See the balance sheet in Hachtmann,
Epochenschwelle
, pp. 178–81.

119
. Tombs,
France
, p. 395.

120
. Deák,
Lawful Revolution
, pp. 321–37 (figure from p. 329).

121
. Langewiesche,
Europa
, p. 112.

122
. A paradigmatic life: from revolt to exile to rehabilitation. See Gregor-Dellin,
Richard Wagner
, pp. 288ff.

123
. Hachtmann,
Epochenschwelle
, pp. 181–85; Brancaforte,
German Forty-Eighters
; Levine,
Spirit of 1848
; Wolfram Siemann, “Asyl, Exil und Emigration,” in Langewiesche,
Demokratiebewegung
, pp. 70–91.

124
. The following builds on M. Taylor,
1848 Revolution
.

125
. Clarke and Gregory,
Western Reports
contains excellent documentation.

126
. The best account and analysis of the movement, especially of its beginnings, is J. Spence,
God's Chinese Son
. Also still important are Michael,
Taiping Rebellion
, vol. 1; Jen Yu-wen,
Taiping
; and Shih,
Taiping Ideology
.

127
. Spence,
God's Chinese Son
, p. 171; Michael,
Taiping Rebellion
, vol. 1, p. 174.

128
. Cao Shuji,
Zhongguo yimin shi
, p. 469.

129
. Deng,
China's Political
Economy, p. 38.

130
. Michael,
Taiping Rebellion
, vol. 1, pp. 135–68; sources in ibid., vol. 3, pp. 729–1378, esp. 754ff.

131
. Stampp,
America in 1857
, p. viii.

132
. W. B. Lincoln,
Great Reforms
, pp. 68f.

133
. P. J. O. Taylor,
Companion
, p. 75.

134
. The events are described in every up-to-date history: e.g., Markovits et al.,
Modern India
, pp. 283–93. A good introduction is Llewellyn-Jones,
Great Uprising in India
. (More) sources may be found in Harlow and Carter,
Archives of Empire
, vol. 1, pp. 391–551. Herbert,
War of No Pity
, is an interesting study from the point of view of the history of mentalities and human psychology. Wagner,
Marginal Mutiny
, discusses recent research; Pati,
Great Rebellion
, samples this work.

135
. Omissi,
Sepoy
, p. 133. After the “Mutiny,” the ratio of 5:1 was lowered to 2:1.

136
. Russell's reporting was astonishingly impartial, not hostile to the Indians. See his
My
Diary in India
(reprint 2010).

137
. Cook,
Understanding Jihad
, pp. 80f.; Bose and Jalal,
Modern South Asia
, p. 74.

138
. On the course of events, see any textbook, or Guelzo,
Fateful Lightning
; for additional context Ford,
Companion to the Civil War
; readers of German will profit from a non-American perspective: Finzsch,
Konsolidierung
, pp. 561–741.

139
. McPherson,
Abraham Lincoln
, esp. pp. 6f.

140
. In his global comparative study of paths to modernity, Barrington Moore spoke of the American Civil War as the “last capitalist revolution”:
Social Origins
pp. 111ff., esp. pp. 151–55. The main proponent of the revolution thesis is the great Civil War historian McPherson,
Abraham Lincoln
, esp. pp. 3–22.

141
. Even one great non-Marxist authority has used the term revolution: Jen Yu-wen,
Taiping
.

142
. A. Lincoln,
Speeches and Writings
, vol. 2, p. 218.

143
. Moore,
Social Origins
, p. 153.

144
. Foner,
American Freedom
, p. 58.

145
. See the brief discussion in John Ashworth, “The Sectionalization of Politics, 1845–1860,” in Barney,
Companion
, pp. 33–46. The standard work is Freehling,
Road to Disunion
.

146
. Potter,
Impending Crisis
; Levine,
Half Slave
.

147
. On the course of the war, see McPherson,
Battlecry
.

148
. W. J. Cooper and Terrill,
American South
, vol. 2, p. 373.

149
. R. W. Fogel,
Slavery Debates
, p. 63.

150
. Still relevant is Litwack,
Been in the Storm so Long
.

151
. Boles,
Companion
, chs. 16–18.

152
. The expression is borrowed from Eric Foner, the author of the most comprehensive history of this episode:
Reconstruction
.

153
. Or even from 1848 to 1877, as in the standard account, Barney,
Battleground
, which uses “1848” as a formal starting date (“mid-century”).

154
. Atwill,
Chinese Sultanate
, p. 185: not a purely religious conflict, and one largely provoked by Han Chinese.

155
. Figure from M. C. Meyer and Sherman,
Mexican History
, p. 552; the standard accounts are an analytical work by a Swiss expert: Tobler,
La revolución Mexicana
, and, more narrative than analysis, A. Knight,
Mexican Revolution
.

156
. Mardin,
Genesis of Young Ottoman Thought
, pp. 169–71; he stresses, however, that it was several decades before the French Revolution showed any impact in the Ottoman Empire.

157
. D. C. Price,
Russia
.

158
. Fundamental for China is Reynolds,
China
.

159
. Gasster,
Chinese Intellectuals
, esp. pp. 106ff.

160
. Sohrabi,
Global Waves
, p. 58.

161
. Gelvin,
Modern Middle East
, p. 145.

162
. Yoshitake,
Five Political Leaders
, pp. 180, 193, 222.

163
. Ascher,
Revolution of 1905
, p. 28. This is the abridgement of a work that originally appeared in two volumes.

164
. Kreiser and Neumann,
Türkei
, pp. 341f.; Georgeon,
Abdulhamid II
, pp. 87–89.

165
. See D. Lieven,
Nicholas II
.

166
. The standard biography, focused particularly on the early period of his rule, is Amanat,
Pivot of the Universe
.

167
. Fundamental here are Arjomand,
Constitutions
, pp. 49–57; and Sohrabi,
Historicizing Revolutions
.

168
. For the text see Gosewinkel and Masing,
Verfassungen
, pp. 1307–22.

169
. Ascher,
Revolution of 1905
, pp. 16f.

170
. Janet M. Hartley, “Provincial and Local Government,” in D. Lieven,
Cambridge History of Russia
, vol. 2, pp. 449–67, at 461–65; Philippot,
Les zemstvos
, pp. 76–80.

171
. For a detailed account of the late Qing reforms: Chuzo Ichiko, “Political and Institutional Reform, 1901–11,” in Fairbank and Twitchett,
Cambridge History of China
, vol. 11, pp. 375–415; also Reynolds,
China
.

172
. Sdvižkov,
Zeitalter der Intelligenz
, p. 150.

173
. A classical account is Venturi,
Roots of Revolution
, chs. 21–22. For a more succinct portrait, see Sdvižkov,
Zeitalter der Intelligenz
, pp. 139–83.

174
. See Vanessa Martin,
Islam and Modernism
, pp. 18f.

175
. See the case study: P. A. Cohen,
Between Tradition and Modernity
.

176
. On the politicization of the military within the anti-Hamid movement, see the (somewhat confused) analysis in Turfan,
Rise of the Young Turks
. The standard work in English on the Young Turk Revolution is Hanioğlu,
Preparation
.

177
. Ascher,
Revolution of 1905
, pp. 57f.

178
. Keddie,
Qajar Iran
, p. 59.

179
. Zürcher,
Turkey
, pp. 93f.

180
. Fung,
Military Dimension
; a key work is McCord,
Power of the Gun
, pp. 46–79.

181
. For a history of the events, see J. Spence,
Modern China
, pp. 249–68.

182
. On Yuan, a fascinating figure in the transition from the nineteenth to the twentieth century, see E. P. Young,
Presidency of Yuan Shih-k'ai
.

183
. On this early parliamentarianism, see Abrahamian,
Iran
, pp. 81–92.

184
. Afary,
Iranian Constitutional Revolution
, pp. 337–40.

185
. Kreiser and Neumann,
Türkei
, p. 361.

186
. On the Pahlavi regime down to 1941, see Gavin R. G. Hambly, “The Pahlavi Autocracy: Riżā Shāh, 1921–1941,” in: Avery et al.,
Cambridge History of Iran
, vol. 7, pp. 213–43.

187
. There is a trend in recent research to identify revolution as an extreme form or macro-variant of collective violence: see, e.g., C. Tilly,
Collective Violence
.