The Transformation of the World (219 page)

118
. A modification of P. L. Berger,
Capitalist Revolution
, p. 19. For a motivational rather than a systemic definition of “capitalism,” see Appleby,
Relentless Revolution
, pp. 25f. In this work, the story of capitalism is that of profit seeking within different cultural contexts.

119
. A fundamental Marxist work here is Byres,
Capitalism from Above
.

120
. A paradigmatic case is the creation of Lever Brothers/Unilever and the development of its overseas activities since 1895.

121
. See the national profiles in A. D. Chandler et al.,
Big Business
. There is an interesting contrary view in Arrighi,
Long Twentieth Century
, pp. 33f., which sees a sharp opposition between “capitalism,” and “territorialism.”

CHAPTER XIII: Labor

    1
. Many ideas in this chapter draw on Kocka and Offe,
Arbeit
, esp. pp. 121ff.

    2
. See
chapter 5
, above.

    3
. Siddiqi,
Ayesha's World
; Rosselli,
Singers
, chs. 3–4; Richardson,
Chinese Mine Labour
; Druett,
Rough Medicine
. Such studies, reconstructing particular worlds of work on the basis of firsthand documents, are of enormous value.

    4
. Chris Tilly and Tilly,
Work
, p. 29.

    5
. For a list of research reports and literature on this chapter, see Lucassen,
Global Labour History
.

    6
. Kaelble,
Erwerbsarbeit
, pp. 22–25.

    7
. This is shown in Biernacki,
Fabrication of Labor
.

    8
. See Lynn,
Commerce
, a study of the palm oil trade, esp. pp. 34–59.

    9
. For Africa see Atkins,
The Moon Is Dead
, p. 128.

  10
. There are scarcely attempts at a global history of agriculture, but on the Atlantic there is Richard Herr, “The Nature of Rural History,” in idem,
Themes
, pp. 3–44. See the masterly panorama of rural Europe (with various side glances) in Hobsbawm,
Age of Capital
, ch. 10.

  11
. Kaelble,
Erwerbsstruktur
, pp. 8, 10.

  12
. See
chapter 7
, above.

  13
. Elson,
End of the Peasantry
, pp. 23f.

  14
. For a brief overview of the research, see M. Kearney, “Peasants and Rural Societies in History,” in Smelser and Baltes,
International Encyclopedia
, vol. 16, pp. 11163–71. There is also a good survey of theories of “peasant society” in Wimmer,
Die komplexe Gesellschaft
. Much of the theoretical elaboration is based upon Russian and Southeast Asian examples.

  15
. There is a good summary in Little,
Understanding Peasant China
, pp. 29–67.

  16
. Hanley and Yamamura,
Preindustrial Japan
, p. 332.

  17
. Blum,
Internal Structure
, p. 542.

  18
. Huang,
Peasant Economy
, pp. 225–28.

  19
. On the village commune in Europe, see (in addition to Blum) Rösener,
Peasantry
; and on Russia, Ascher,
Stolypin
, pp. 153–64. There are still few comparative works on Asia. Fukutake,
Asian Rural Society,
is an ethnological study (Japan, China, India) with little historical depth of focus. See also Gilbert Rozman, “Social Change,” in J. W. Hall,
Cambridge History of Japan
, vol. 5, pp. 499–568, at 526f. It goes without saying that there is no such thing as “the” European or Japanese village.

  20
. Fukutake,
Asian Rural Society
, p. 4.

  21
. In Japan alone, a study in 1885 discovered more than twenty different forms of leasehold. See Waswo,
Japanese Landlords
, p. 23.

  22
. Palairet,
Rural Serbia
, pp. 41–43, 69ff., 78, 85–90.

  23
. The main source here is Robb,
Peasants' Choices?
; a synthesis of recent research may be found in Jacques Pouchepadass's chapters in Markovits et al.,
Modern India
, pp. 294–315, 410–31. See also Ludden,
Agrarian History
.

  24
. See, e.g., Grigg,
Agricultural Systems
.

  25
. Stinchcombe,
Stratification
, pp. 33–51.

  26
. See
chapter 5
, above.

  27
. For India see Prakash,
World of the Rural Labourer
.

  28
. Peebles,
Sri Lanka
, p. 58.

  29
. For a detailed account of working conditions, see Breman,
Taming the Coolie Beast
, pp. 131f.

  30
. There is a brief description of the type in Grigg,
Agricultural Systems
, pp. 213–15.

  31
. Stoler,
Capitalism
, p. 20.

  32
. Ibid., pp. 25–36.

  33
. Alleaume,
Industrial Revolution
, pp. 331, 335, 338, 342f.; R. Owen,
Middle East
, pp. 66–68.

  34
. For Mexiko and Peru, see Mallon,
Peasant and Nation
.

  35
. Nickel,
Soziale Morphologie
, pp. 73–83.

  36
. Ibid., pp. 110–16. See also the overview of the hacienda in Wasserman,
Everyday Life
, pp. 23–29, 70–72, 150–54.

  37
. Adelman,
Frontier Development
, p. 130.

  38
. There is a fine passage on African housing in Zeleza,
Economic History of Africa
, pp. 213–16.

  39
. Kriger,
Pride of Men
, p. 119.

  40
. Friel,
Maritime History
, p. 228.

  41
. At least this was so in Hamburg until the end of the century; the guild element was weaker in England and Scotland. See Cattaruzza,
Arbeiter
, pp. 118f.

  42
. Peter Boomgaard, “The Non-Agricultural Side of an Agricultural Economy: Java 1500–1900,” in Alexander et al.,
Shadow
, pp. 14–40, at 30.

  43
. Labor historians think mainly in terms of urban factory work; see the balance sheet in Heerma van Voss and Linden,
Class
.

  44
. Bradley,
Muzhik and Muscovite
, p. 16.

  45
. See R. E. Johnson,
Peasant and Proletarian
, p. 26.

  46
. Turrell,
Capital and Labour
, pp. 146–73.

  47
. On the less-well-known Chinese case, see Shao Qin,
Culturing Modernity
.

  48
. Friedgut,
Iuzovka and Revolution
, vol. 1, pp. 193ff.

  49
. See, e.g., Beinin and Lockman,
Workers on the Nile
, p. 25; Tsurumi,
Factory Girls
, pp. 59–67.

  50
. The important theme of child labor, for which there is a lack of studies outside Europe, will have to be passed over here. Ten European countries feature in Rahikainen,
Centuries of Child Labour
. The general conclusion is probably that children always worked everywhere until the 1880s, when a number of European countries—above all, Britain and Germany—introduced protective legislation, though only for industrial work (ibid., pp. 150–57). See also Cunningham,
Children and Childhood
; for a rich and precise model study on Britain see Humphries,
Childhood and Child Labour
.

  51
. Johnston,
Modern Epidemic
, pp. 74–80; Tsurumi,
Factory Girls
, esp. pp. 59 ff. For Germany see, e.g., Kocka,
Arbeitsverhältnisse
, pp. 448–61.

  52
. For a full-scale discussion, see G. A. Ritter and Tenfelde,
Arbeiter
, pp. 265ff.

  53
. See, e.g., the study of early industry in New England: Prude,
Industrial Order
, pp. 76ff.

  54
. Important on work conditions in the iron and steel industry in Germany and beyond is Kocka,
Arbeitsverhältnisse
, pp. 413–36.

  55
. P. M. Kennedy,
Great Powers
, p. 200 (Tab. 15); B. R. Mitchell,
Europe
, pp. 456f.

  56
. Way,
Common Labor
, p. 8.

  57
. The realities of canal work are described in ibid. pp. 133–43.

  58
. Meinig,
Shaping of America
, vol. 2, pp. 318–21.

  59
. The following borrows from the excellent study based on the archives of the Suez Canal Company: Montel,
Le chantier
. For the context, see Karabell,
Parting the Desert
, and on the later significance of the canal, Farnie,
Suez Canal
; Huber,
Channelling Mobilities
.

  60
. McCreery,
Sweat
, pp. 117f.

  61
. Montel,
Le chantier
, p. 64.

  62
. Diesbach,
Ferdinand de Lesseps
, p. 194.

  63
. For a detailed description of the festivities, see ibid., pp. 261–72.

  64
. On railroad construction workers in Germany, see Kocka,
Arbeitsverhältnisse
, pp. 361–66.

  65
. Ambrose,
Nothing Like It
, p. 150. A more systematic study is still Licht,
Railroad
.

  66
. Shelton Stromquist, “Railroad Labor and the Global Economy,” in Lucassen,
Global Labour History
, pp. 623–47, esp. 632–35.

  67
. Marks,
Road to Power
, pp. 183–85.

  68
.
Meyers Großes Konversations-Lexikon
, 6th ed. (Leipzig 1903), vol. 5, p. 505.

  69
. Kerr,
Building
, pp. 200, 214 (Tab. 2).

  70
. Ibid., pp. 88–91, 157f.

  71
. This was closely associated with dock labor, already discussed in
chapter 6
, above. A key work is S. Davies et al.,
Dock Workers
.

  72
. Greater detail in an unexpected place: Stinchcombe,
Sugar Island Slavery
, pp. 57–88.

  73
. This has often been overlooked—though not in a still useful older work: Fohlen and Bédarida,
Histoire générale du travail
, pp. 166–73.

  74
. Some of the voices are quoted in Mawer,
Ahab's Trade
, pp. xiv, 73–75, 230. See also
chapter 7
, above.

  75
. H. V. Bowen,
Business of Empire
, ch. 6.

  76
. Simonton,
European Women's Work
, p. 235.

  77
. Osterhammel,
China
, pp. 185–88.

  78
. Except for a very brief stint as court librarian in Hesse-Homburg.

  79
. Stites,
Serfdom
, pp. 71–82; Finscher,
Streicherkammermusik
, p. 84.

  80
. Gunilla-Friederike Budde, “Das Dienstmädchen,” in Frevert and Haupt,
DerMensch
, pp. 148–75; and the wide-ranging Simonton,
European Women's Work
, pp. 96–111, 200–206.

  81
. Rustemeyer,
Dienstboten
, p. 88.

  82
. MacRaild and Martin,
Labour in British Society
, p. 21 (Tab. 1.1).

  83
. Dublin,
Transforming Women's Work
, pp. 157–62.

  84
. L. A. Tilly and Scott,
Women
, p. 69.

  85
. Boyar and Fleet,
Ottoman Istanbul
, p. 297.

  86
. See Hardach-Pinke,
Gouvernante
, pp. 206–40, which is concerned mainly with female German teachers abroad, also K. Hughes,
The Victorian Governess
.

  87
. The classification follows Bush,
Servitude
.

  88
. This theme will be taken up in a different perspective in
chapter 17
.

  89
. Eltis,
Rise of African Slavery
, esp. pp. 137ff.

  90
. On the controversy surrounding this theme, see the work by two eminent scholars of slavery: Davis,
Inhuman Bondage
, chs. 12–13; Drescher,
Abolition
, esp. ch. 5. There is a lively but somewhat naïve account in Hochschild,
Bury the Chains
.

  91
. I am grateful to Norbert Finzsch for helping me clarify this point.

  92
. A pioneering and now classical example of this approach is Genovese,
Roll, Jordan, Roll
.

  93
. Peter Coclanis, “The Economics of Slavery,” in: Paquette and Smith,
Oxford Handbook of Slavery
, pp. 489–512, at 498.

  94
. Cooper and Terrill,
American South
, vol. 2, pp. 517–19.

  95
. See also
chapter 10
, above.

  96
. For a systematic analysis, see Byres,
Capitalism from Above
, pp. 282–336.

  97
. The fate of these “rural dispossessed,” both black and white, is movingly portrayed in Jones,
The Dispossessed
.

  98
. Ward,
Poverty
, pp. 31ff.

  99
. See the excellent comparative study in Scott,
Degrees of Freedom
.

100
. We shall pass over the difficult issue of the terminological relationship with the manorial system (
Gutsherrschaft
) that from 1570 on gradually became the dominant form east of the Elbe.

101
. Berlin,
Generations of Captivity
, Tab. 1 (appendix); Drescher and Engerman,
World Slavery
, pp. 69f.