The Truth Machine (39 page)

107
. Rafter, “Criminal Anthropology,” 159.

108
. Ibid., 176.

109
. Ibid., 178.

110
. Garland, “Of Crimes and Criminals,” 23.

111
. Ottolenghi (1908) quoted in Gibson,
Born to Crime,
135.

112
. Tarde, “Is There a Criminal Type?” 110.

113
. Wolfgang, “Cesare Lombroso, 1835–1909,” 232.

114
. Ibid., 287.

115
. Albrecht, “Cesare Lombroso,” 72.

116
. Alfred Lindesmith and Yale Levin, “The Lombrosoian Myth in Criminology,”
The American Journal of Sociology
42 (1937): 654.

117
. Gibson, “Science and Narrative in Italian Criminology,” 40.

118
. Richard Bach Jensen, “Criminal Anthropology and Anarchist Terrorism in Spain and Italy,”
Mediterranean Historical Review
16, no. 2 (December 2001): 36.

119
. Richard F. Wetzell,
Inventing the Criminal: A History of German Criminology, 18801945
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000), 53.

120
. Quoted in Stephen Jay Gould,
The Mismeasure of Man
(London: Penguin Books, 1981), 135.

121
. In Pick,
Faces of Degeneration,
121.

122
. Tarde, “Is There a Criminal Type?”

123
. Mary S. Gibson, “Cesare Lombroso and Italian Criminology: Theory and Politics,” in Becker and Wetzell,
Criminals and their Scientists,
141.

124
. Wetzell,
Inventing the Criminal,
30.

125
. Horn,
The Criminal Body,
133.

126
. Wetzell,
Inventing the Criminal,
31.

127
. Cesare Lombroso, “Atavism and Evolution,”
Contemporary Review
68 (July/December 1895): 42–49.

128
. Max Weber, “The Sociology of Charismatic Authority/The Nature of Charismatic Authority and Its Routinization,” in
The Celebrity Culture Reader,
ed. P. David Marshall (London: Routledge, 2006), 60.

129
. Ibid., 56.

130
. Ibid., 61.

131
. Charles Thorpe and Steven Shapin, “Who Was J. Robert Oppenheimer?: Charisma and Complex Organization,”
Social Studies of Science
30 (2000): 580.

132
. Pick,
Faces of Degeneration,
149.

133
. Quoted in Wetzell,
Inventing the Criminal,
56–57.

134
. Tarde, “Is There a Criminal Type?” 112.

135
. Leps,
Apprehending the Criminal,
220.

136
. Ibid.

137
. Tarde, “Is There a Criminal Type?” 109.

138
. Ibid.

139
. Ibid.

Epigraphs.
Sigmund Freud, “Three Essays on Sexuality,” in Peter Gay, ed.
The Freud Reader
(London: Vintage, 1995): 248; Friedrich Nietzsche,
Beyond Good and Evil: Prelude to a Philosophy of the Future,
trans. R. J. Hollingworth (London: Penguin, 1973), 164.

1
. Cynthia Eagle Russett,
Sexual Science: The Victorian Construction of Womanhood
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989).

2
. Quoted in Ornella Moscucci, “Hermaphroditism and Sex Difference: The Construction of Gender in Victorian England,” in
Science and Sensibility: Gender and Scientific Enquiry, 1780–1945,
ed. Marina Benjamin (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1991), 174.

3
. Elaine Showalter,
Sexual Anarchy: Gender and Culture at the Fin de Siècle
(London: Bloomsbury, 1991), 129.

4
. Frances Power Cobbe, “Criminals, Idiots, Women and Minors,”
Fraser's Magazine
78 (December 1868): 777–94.

5
. Beverly Brown, “Women and Crime: The Dark Figures of Criminology,”
Economy and Society
15 (1986): 401.

6
. Alison Young,
Imagining Crime: Textual Outlaws and Criminal Conversations
(London: Sage, 1996), 31.

7
. Elizabeth V. Spelman, “Woman as Body: Ancient and Contemporary Views,” in
Feminist Theory and the Body: A Reader,
ed. Janet Price and Margrit Shildrick (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1999), 39.

8
. Carroll Smith-Rosenberg,
Disorderly Conduct: Visions of Gender in Victorian America
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 189–90.

9
. Carolyn Merchant,
The Death of Nature: Women, Ecology, and the Scientific Revolution
(San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1983).

10
. Natalie Zemon Davis, “Gender and Sexual Temperament,” in
The Polity Reader in Gender Studies
(Cambridge: Polity Press, 1994), 129–34.

11
. Merchant,
The Death of Nature.

12
. Zemon Davis, “Gender and Sexual Temperament,” 131.

13
. Quoted in Steven Shapin,
A Social History of Truth: Civility and Science in Seventeenth-Century England
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), 90.

14
. Shapin,
A Social History of Truth,
83–84.

15
. Thomas Laqueur,
Making Sex: Body and Gender from the Greeks to Freud
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990), 149.

16
. Susan J. Hekman,
Gender and Knowledge: Elements of a Postmodern Feminism
(Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1990), 111.

17
. Quoted in Eva Figes,
Patriarchal Attitudes: Women in Society
(New York: Persea Books, 1970), 122.

18
. Smith-Rosenberg,
Disorderly Conduct,
13.

19
. Ibid., 25.

20
. Quoted by Marina Benjamin, “Introduction,” in
Science and Sensibility,
ed. Benjamin, 1.

21
. Smith-Rosenberg,
Disorderly Conduct,
183.

22
. Karen Lystra,
Searching the Heart: Women, Men, and Romantic Love in Nineteenth-Century America
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), 20.

23
. Darwin quoted in Figes,
Patriarchal Attitudes,
113–14.

24
. Mary Poovey,
Uneven Developments: The Ideological Work of Gender in Mid-Victorian England
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), 6.

25
. Geneviève Fraisse, “A Philosophical History of Sexual Difference,” in
A History of Women in the West: IV, Emerging Feminism from Revolution to World War,
ed. Geneviève Fraisse and Michelle Perrot (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993), 61.

26
. George Beard,
American Nervousness: Its Causes and Consequences
(New York: Putnam, 1881), vi.

27
. Elaine Showalter,
The Female Malady: Women, Madness and English Culture, 18301980
(London: Virago Press, 1987), 122.

28
. Quoted in Toril Moi,
What is a Woman? And Other Essays
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 18.

29
. Showalter,
Female Malady,
122.

30
. Moscucci, “Hermaphroditism and Sex Difference,” 193.

31
. Dr. M. L. Holbrook (1882) quoted in Poovey,
Uneven Developments,
35.

32
. Smith-Rosenberg,
Disorderly Conduct,
22–23.

33
. Carole Pateman,
The Disorder of Women: Democracy, Feminism and Political Theory
(Cambridge: Polity Press, 1989), 18.

34
. Ibid., 76.

35
. Quoted in ibid., 76

36
. Kant (1764) quoted in Lorraine Daston, “The Naturalized Female Intellect,” in
Historical Dimensions of Psychological Discourse,
ed. Carl F. Graumann and Kenneth J. Gergen (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 186.

37
. Figes,
Patriarchal Attitudes,
123.

38
. Ibid., 124.

39
. Ibid., 125.

40
. Nietzsche,
Beyond Good and Evil,
100.

41
. Ibid., 31, 164.

42
. On hysteria see Rachel P. Maines,
The Technology of Orgasm: “Hysteria,” The Vibrator, and Women's Sexual Satisfaction
(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999).

43
. Mark Micale,
Approaching Hysteria: Disease and its Interpretations
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995), 57.

44
.
Physiology, Medicine etc.
(London: Spottiswoode & Co., n.d. [published before 1860])

45
. Showalter,
Female Malady,
145.

46
. Jane Ussher,
Women's Madness: Misogyny or Mental Illness?
(New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1991), 91.

47
. Showalter,
The Female Malady,
121–64.

48
. Micale,
Approaching Hysteria,
225.

49
. Mark Micale, “Hysteria Male/Hysteria Female: Reflections on Comparative Gender Construction in Nineteenth-Century France and Britain,” in
Science and Sensibility,
ed. Benjamin, 200–39. Quote on 205–6.

50
. Unattributed, quoted in Juliet Mitchell,
Women: The Longest Revolution: Essays in Feminism, Literature and Psychoanalysis
(London: Virago, 1984), 115.

51
. Micale, “Hysteria Male/Hysteria Female,” 205–6.

52
. Maudsley (1895) quoted in Showalter,
The Female Malady,
133–34.

53
.
Physiology, Medicine etc.

54
. Quoted in Poovey,
Uneven Developments,
45–46.

55
. Ibid., 46.

56
. W. L. Distant, “On the Mental Differences Between the Sexes,”
The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland
4 (1875): 84.

57
. Mary Gibson,
Born to Crime: Cesare Lombroso and the Origins of Biological Criminology
(Westport, CT: Praeger, 2002), 65.

58
. Lombroso and Ferrero cited in Gibson,
Born to Crime,
64.

59
. Bela Földes, “The Criminal,”
Journal of the Royal Statistical Society
69, no. 3 (September 1906): 559.

60
. Maudsley (1874) quoted in Lucia Zedner,
Women, Crime and Custody in Victorian England
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991), 87.

61
. Havelock Ellis (1904) quoted in Zedner,
Women, Crime and Custody,
87.

62
. D. G. Brinton, “Current Notes on Anthropology.—VII: The Criminal Anthropology of Woman,”
Science
19, no. 487 (June 3, 1892): 316.

63
. Cesare Lombroso and Guglielmo Ferrero,
The Female Offender
(New York: D. Appleton, 1895), 147.

64
. David G. Horn,
The Criminal Body: Lombroso and the Anatomy of Deviance
(London: Routledge, 2003), 70.

65
. Lombroso and Ferrero,
The Female Offender,
148.

66
. Ibid., 25.

67
. Gibson,
Born to Crime,
61.

68
. Ottolengh (1896) cited in Gibson,
Born to Crime,
62.

69
. Lombroso and Ferrero,
The Female Offender,
111.

70
. Lombroso (1892) quoted in Marie-Christine Leps,
Apprehending the Criminal: The Production of Deviance in Nineteenth-Century Discourse
(Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1992), 62.

71
. Brinton, “Current Notes on Anthropology.—VII,” 316.

72
. A figure confirmed by Földes, “The Criminal,” 560, but referring to crime in general across nations.

73
. Zedner,
Women, Crime and Custody,
1.

74
. Martin J. Wiener,
Reconstructing the Criminal: Culture, Law, and Policy in England, 1830–1914
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 130.

75
. Gibson,
Born to Crime,
69. But see Matthew C. Scheider “Moving Past Biological Determinism in Discussions of Women and Crime during the 1870s-1920s: A Note Regarding the Literature,”
Deviant Behavior
21, no. 5 (2000): 407–27.

76
. Horn,
The Criminal Body,
332.

77
. Földes, “The Criminal,” 558–59.

78
. Piers Beirne, “Adolphe Quetelet and the Origins of Positivist Criminology,”
American Journal of Sociology
92, no. 5 (1987): 1157.

79
. Földes, “The Criminal,” 562.

80
. Cited in Gibson,
Born to Crime,
75.

81
. Gibson,
Born to Crime,
88.

82
. Lombroso and Ferrero,
The Female Offender,
154.

83
. Gibson,
Born to Crime,
88.

84
. Adalbert Albrecht, “Cesare Lombroso: A Glance at His Life Work,”
Journal of the American Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology
1, no. 2 (July 1910): 80.

85
. Quoted in Kelly Hurley,
The Gothic Body: Sexuality, Materialism, and Degeneration at the Fin-de-Siècle
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 98.

86
. Laqueur,
Making Sex,
230.

87
. Peter J. Hutchings,
The Criminal Spectre in Law, Literature and Aesthetics
(London: Routledge, 2001), 104.

88
. Quoted in Hutchings,
The Criminal Spectre,
106.

89
. Quoted in Frances A. Kellor, “Psychological and Environmental Study of Women Criminals I,”
The American Journal of Sociology
5, no. 4 (January 1900): 531.