The Undivided Past (51 page)

  68.
Fredrickson,
Racism
, p. 82, 110–11; Foner,
American Freedom
, p. 131.

  69.
Lake and Reynolds,
Global Colour Line
, pp. 129–31; Foner,
American Freedom
, pp. 131, 189; Painter,
White People
, pp. 209–11, 234, 238, 322–23.

  70.
S. C. Miller,
“Benevolent Assimilation”: The American Conquest of the Philippines, 1899–1903
(New Haven, 1982), p. 188; Hyam,
Understanding the British Empire
, p. 127; Lake and Reynolds,
Global Colour Line
, pp. 106–13; Foner,
American Freedom
, pp. 131–32, 137, 188–89.

  71.
Fredrickson,
Racism
, pp. 77–88; P. Pulzer,
The Rise of Political Anti-Semitism in Germany and Austria
(Cambridge, Mass., 1988), pp. 83–119.

  72.
R. Overy,
The Dictators: Hitler’s Germany and Stalin’s Russia
(London, 2004), p. 549.

  73.
Mosse,
Toward the Final Solution
, pp. 99–100, 110–11, 204–5; M. Burleigh and W. Wippermann,
The Racial State: Germany, 1933–1945
(Cambridge, 1991), pp. 23–43; R. J. Evans,
The Coming of the Third Reich
(New York, 2005), pp. 450–51.

  74.
Overy,
The Dictators
, p. 552.

  75.
Ibid., pp. 570–71.

  76.
Burleigh and Wippermann,
Racial State
, p. 49.

  77.
R. J. Evans,
The Third Reich at War
(New York, 2009), pp. 28–29.

  78.
Fredrickson,
Racism
, pp. 118–22.

  79.
Overy,
The Dictators
, pp. 583–84; R. J. Evans,
The Third Reich in Power
(New York, 2006), pp. 506–79.

  80.
Burleigh and Wippermann,
Racial State
, p. 102; Overy,
The Dictators
, pp. 552–53; Evans,
Third Reich at War
, pp. 216–318.

  81.
Lake and Reynolds,
Global Colour Line
, pp. 327–30; Fredrickson,
Racism
, pp. 116–17.

  82.
Fredrickson,
Racism
, p. 133.

  83.
Lake and Reynolds,
Global Colour Line
, p. 354; Fredrickson,
Racism
, p. 124.

  84.
W. H. Vatcher,
White Laager: The Rise of Afrikaner Nationalism
(New York, 1965), p. 160.

  85.
Fredrickson,
Racism
, pp. 135–36; G. M. Carter,
The Politics of Inequality: South Africa Since 1948
(London, 1958), p. 370; T. D. Moodie,
The Rise of Afrikanerdom: Power, Apartheid and the Afrikaner Civil Religion
(Berkeley, 1975), p. 265.

  86.
For differing views on Smuts and race see Hyam,
Understanding the British Empire
, pp. 342–60; S. Marks, “White Masculinity: Smuts, Race and the South African War,”
Proceedings of the British Academy
111 (2001): 199–223; N. Garson, “Smuts and the Idea of Race,”
South African Historical Journal
57 (2007): 153–78; S. Dubow, “Smuts, the United Nations, and the Rhetoric of Race and Rights,”
Journal of Contemporary History
43 (2008): 45–73.

  87.
Hyam,
Understanding the British Empire
, pp. 353–55.

  88.
Darwin,
Empire Project
, pp. 147, 177; Ziegler,
Legacy
, pp. 88–90; Painter,
White People
, p. 317.

  89.
D. Cannadine,
Ornamentalism: How the British Saw Their Empire
(London, 2001).

  90.
M. Adas,
Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology, and Ideologies of Western Dominance
(Ithaca, N.Y., 1989), pp. 199–210, 271–75; Darwin,
Empire Project
, p. 168; Hyam,
Understanding the British Empire
, pp. 31, 222–29; Lake and Reynolds,
Global Colour Line
, pp. 123–24, 131.

  91.
Darwin,
Empire Project
, p. 178.

  92.
M. Vaughan, “Liminal,”
London Review of Books
, March 23, 2006, pp. 15–16, taking issue with A. Memmi,
The Coloniser and the Colonised
(London, 2003).

  93.
Fredrickson,
Racism
, pp. 108–9; Mosse,
Toward the Final Solution
, pp. 51–57; Bolt,
Victorian Attitudes to Race
, p. 22; M. Banton,
Racial Theories
(2nd ed., Cambridge, 1998), pp. 73–74; M. D. Biddiss,
Father of Racist Ideology: The Social and Political Thought of Count Gobineau
(London, 1970), pp. 253–54.

  94.
Foner,
American Freedom
, pp. 173–74; Fredrickson,
Racism
, pp. 102–3, 116.

  95.
Foner,
American Freedom
, pp. 78–79.

  96.
Overy,
The Dictators
, p. 547.

  97.
G. H. Herb,
Under the Map of Germany: Nationalism and Propaganda, 1918–1945
(London, 1997), pp. 136–39.

  98.
Mosse,
Toward the Final Solution
, pp. 91–93; Fredrickson,
Racism
, pp. 124–25.

  99.
S. Harries,
Nikolaus Pevsner: The Life
(London, 2011), pp. 38–40, 47, 125.

100.
Overy,
The Dictators
, p. 573; Herb,
Under the Map of Germany
, pp. 132–40.

101.
Mosse,
Toward the Final Solution
, pp. 141–42; Overy,
The Dictators
, pp. 576–78; Evans,
Third Reich in Power
, p. 545.

102.
Fredrickson,
Racism
, pp. 132, 136–37.

103.
Hyam,
Understanding the British Empire
, pp. 353–54.

104.
Kidd,
Forging of Races
, p. 275.

105.
Painter,
White People
, pp. 228–32, 237–38.

106.
Fredrickson,
Racism
, pp. 158–63.

107.
Stepan,
Idea of Race
, pp. 140–69; Barkan,
Retreat of Scientific Racism
, pp. 279–340.

108.
Lake and Reynolds,
Global Colour Line
, p. 350; Painter,
White People
, p. 329; emphasis in original.

109.
Hannaford,
Race
, pp. 371–72, 374–76; Barkan,
Retreat of Scientific Racism
, pp. 76–95; Fredrickson,
Racism
, pp. 163–64; J. Barzun,
Race: A Study in Superstition
, rev. ed. (New York, 1965), pp. 15–16.

110.
A. Montagu,
Race, Science and Humanity
(Princeton, 1963 ed.), pp. 1–2, 8.

111.
Foner,
American Freedom
, p. 135; J. White,
Black Leadership in America: From Booker T. Washington to Jesse Jackson
(2nd ed., London, 1990), pp. 29–30.

112.
R. J. Terchek, “Conflict and Nonviolence,” in J. M. Brown and A. Parel, eds.,
The Cambridge Companion to Gandhi
(Cambridge, 2011), p. 118; J. M. Brown, introduction to M. Gandhi,
The Essential Writings
(Oxford, 2008), pp. xxvii–xxviii.

113.
J. M. Brown, “Gandhi and Human Rights: In Search of True Humanity,” in A. J. Parel, ed.,
Gandhi, Freedom and Self-Rule
(Lanham, Md., 2000), pp. 87–94.

114.
Lake and Reynolds,
Global Colour Line
, pp. 1–2, 75–94.

115.
Darwin,
After Tamerlane
, p. 349.

116.
White,
Black Leadership
, pp. 51–65; J. Parker and R. Rathbone,
African History: A Very Short Introduction
(Oxford, 2007), p. 36.

117.
Kidd,
Forging of Races
, pp. 256–57; Foner,
American Freedom
, pp. 174–75; White,
Black Leadership
, pp. 79, 84.

118.
Lake and Reynolds,
Global Colour Line
, pp. 9–10, 104, 145–49, 155, 168–78.

119.
Ibid., pp. 273–78.

120.
Ibid., pp. 11, 284–305, 320–24, 339–40.

121.
M. D. Biddiss, “The Universal Races Congress of 1911,”
Race
13 (1971): 37–46; R. J. Holton, “Cosmopolitanism or Cosmopolitanisms? The Universal Races Congress of 1911,”
Global Networks
2 (2002): 153–70; Lake and Reynolds,
Global Colour Line
, pp. 251–62.

122.
White,
Black Leadership
, pp. 38–42.

123.
J. W. Dower,
War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War
(New York, 1986), pp. 3–14; Foner,
American Freedom
, p. 223; Painter,
White People
, pp. 332–42.

124.
Barkan,
Retreat of Scientific Racism
, pp. 279–85; Foner,
American Freedom
, p. 239; Fredrickson,
Racism
, pp. 165–67.

125.
A. Sampson,
Mandela: The Authorised Biography
(London, 1999), p. 39.

126.
Foner,
American Freedom
, pp. 240–42; C. Thorne, “Racial Aspects of the Far Eastern War of 1941–1945,”
Proceedings of the British Academy
66 (1980): 360–77.

127.
Lake and Reynolds,
Global Colour Line
, p. 351; Barkan,
Retreat of Scientific Racism
, pp. 341–42; K. Malik,
Man, Beast and Zombie: What Science Can and Cannot Tell Us About Human Nature
(London, 2000), pp. 16, 134–35.

128.
Hannaford,
Race
, pp. 385–86; UNESCO,
Conference for the Establishment of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(Paris, 1945), p. 93; L. Kuper, ed.,
Race, Science and Society
(London, 1975), pp. 343–53; M. Brittain, “Race, Racism and Antiracism: UNESCO and the Politics of Presenting Science to the Postwar Public,”
American Historical Review
112 (2007): 1386–1413.

129.
Foner,
American Freedom
, pp. 280–82.

130.
Sampson,
Mandela
, pp. 402,

131.
D. Reynolds,
One World Divisible: A Global History Since 1945
(New York, 2000), p. 201.

132.
White,
Black Leadership
, pp. 150–66; Kidd,
Forging of Races
, pp. 268–70; Foner,
American Freedom
, pp. 283–84; Painter,
White People
, pp. 374–77; Sampson,
Mandela
, pp. 140–59; M. Marable,
Malcolm X: A Life of Reinvention
(New York, 2011), pp. 167–79, 198–203, 480–85.

133.
Reynolds,
One World Divisible
, pp. 213–19, 598–608.

134.
White,
Black Leadership
, p. 141; P. Stothard and N. Danziger, “What Condi Did First,”
Times Magazine
(London), April 1, 2006, p. 19.

135.
C. West, quoted in J. Rajchman, ed.,
The Identity in Question
(New York, 1995), p. 15; R. McKnight, “Confessions of a Wannabe Negro,” in G. Early, ed.,
Lure and Loathing: Essays on Race, Identity, and the Ambivalence of Assimilation
(New York, 1993), p. 112; P. Alexander and R. Halpern, eds.,
Racialising Class, Classifying Race: Labour and Difference in Britain, the USA and Africa
(Basingstoke, 2000).

136.
For surveys of this literature see F. B. Livingstone, “On the Non-Existence of Human Races,”
Current Anthropology
3 (1962): 279–81; G. A. Harrison, “The Race Concept in Human Biology,”
Journal of Biosocial Science
, supplement no. 1 (1969): 129–42.

137.
Foner,
American Freedom
, p. 279; A. E. Meier, E. Rudwick, and F. L. Broderick, eds.,
Black Protest Thought in the Twentieth Century
(2nd ed., New York, 1971), pp. 49–50; D. Wells, ed.,
We Have a Dream: African-American Visions of Freedom
(New York, 1993), pp. 168–72.

138.
Sampson,
Mandela
, pp. 27, 47, 79, 193, 493, 520, 582–85; K. Asmal, D. Chichester, and W. James, eds.,
Nelson Mandela: In His Own Words
(London, 2003), esp. pp. 313–59.

139.
T. J. Sugrue,
Not Even Past: Barack Obama and the Burden of Race
(Princeton, 2010), p. 53.

140.
W. J. Wilson,
The Declining Significance of Race: Blacks and Changing American Institutions
(Chicago, 1978); Wilson, “The Declining Significance of Race: Revisited and Revised,”
Daedalus
(Spring 2011): 55–69; Sugrue,
Not Even Past
, pp. 73–80. See also D. J. Dickerson,
The End of Blackness
(New York, 2004), pp. 3–26.

141.
For example, C. Coon,
The Origin of Races
(New York, 1963); J. R. Baker,
Race
(Oxford, 1974); R. Herrnstein and C. Murray,
The Bell Curve: The Reshaping of American Life by Difference in Intelligence
(New York, 1994); but see the devastating reviews by, respectively, A. Montagu, “What Is Remarkable About Varieties of Man Is Likenesses,
Not Differences,”
Current Anthropology
4 (1963): 361; J. B. Birdsell,
Annals of Human Biology
2 (1975): 208–10; Gould,
Mismeasure of Man
, pp. 367–90.

142.
Sugrue,
Not Even Past
, pp. 92–137; W. J. Wilson and R. P. Taub,
There Goes the Neighborhood: Racial, Ethnic and Class Tensions in Four Chicago Neighborhoods and Their Meaning for America
(New York, 2006), p. 161; B. Obama,
The Audacity of Hope: Thoughts on Reclaiming the American Dream
(New York, 2006), pp. 227–69; R. Kennedy,
The Persistence of the Color Line: Racial Politics and the Obama Presidenc
y (New York, 2011), p. 3.

143.
Painter,
White People
, pp. 384–86.

144.
Ibid., pp. 390–91, 395–96.

145.
Malik,
Man, Beast and Zombie
, pp. 17–18.

146.
Painter,
White People
, p. 392; S. J. Gould, “Honorable Men and Women,”
Natural History
97 (1988): 16–20; Gould,
Mismeasure of Man
, p. 399.