Thomas Jefferson's Qur'an: Islam and the Founders (58 page)

33.
Kerry Walters,
Revolutionary Deists: Early America’s Rational Infidels
(Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 2011), 8.

34.
Popkin, “Deist Challenge,” 20.

35.
Ernest Campbell Mossner, “Deism,” in
Encyclopedia of Philosophy
, ed. Donald M. Borchert (Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2006) 2:680–93.

36.
Kidd,
American Christians and Islam
, 17; Humberto Garcia,
Islam and the English Enlightenment, 1670–1840
(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2012), 5, 10–11, 47–48, 134.

37.
G. J. Toomer,
Eastern Wisedome and Learning: The Study of Arabic in Seventeenth-Century England
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996), 289–92.

38.
James R. Jacob,
Henry Stubbe, Radical Protestantism and the Early Enlightenment
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 114; Marwan M. Obeidat,
American Literature and Orientalism
(Berlin: K. Schwarz, 1998), 18.

39.
P. M. Holt, “The Treatment of Arab History by Prideaux, Ockley, and Sale,” in
Historians of the Middle East
, ed. Bernard Lewis and P. M. Holt (London: Oxford University Press, 1962), 293–94; Toomer,
Eastern Wisedome
, 292. Also noting Prideaux’s distortions is Kevin J. Hayes, “How Thomas Jefferson Read the Qur’an,”
Early American Literature
39, no. 2 (2004): 249–50.

40.
Humberto Garcia believes that Prideaux was responding directly to Henry Stubbe; see Garcia,
Islam and the English Enlightenment
, 51.

41.
Jacob,
Stubbe
, 115.

42.
Henry Stubbe,
An Account of the Rise and Progress of Mahometanism: with the Life of Mahomet and a Vindication of Him and His Religion from the Calumnies of the Christians
, ed. Hafiz Mahmud Khan Shairani (Lahore: Oxford and Cambridge Press, 1911; repr. 1975).

43.
P. M. Holt,
A Seventeenth-Century Defender of Islam: Henry Stubbe (1632–1676) and His Book
(London: Dr. Williams’s Trust, 1972), 9; Toomer,
Eastern Wisedome
, 291. Toomer says three editions of Prideaux were published in England the first year, as opposed to Holt’s two. For the assertion of a far greater circulation of Stubbe’s manuscript, see Garcia,
Islam and the English Enlightenment
, 30–59.

44.
Allison,
Crescent Obscured
, 41; Kidd,
American Christians and Islam
, 9.

45.
Quoted in David A. Pailin,
Attitudes to Other Religions: Comparative Religion in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century Britain
(Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1984), 103.

46.
Quinn,
Sum of All Heresies
, 43–47.

47.
Marr,
Cultural Roots
, 29, 97, 102–3; Kidd,
American Christians and Islam
, 8; Quinn,
Sum of All Heresies
, 24, 30, 38, 43.

48.
Kidd,
American Christians and Islam
, 8.

49.
Cotton Mather,
The Christian Philosopher
, ed. Winton U. Solberg (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994), 111; Allison,
Crescent Obscured
, 47.

50.
Solberg, introduction to Mather,
Christian Philosopher
, lxxiii.

51.
Mather,
Christian Philosopher
, 11–12.

52.
The point that these slurs were launched by Protestants against one another is made by Kidd,
American Christians and Islam
, 14; Kidd, “Is It Worse to Follow Mahomet Than the Devil?,” 767, 774, 776, 787. This point was made earlier for British authors on Islam; Pailin,
Attitudes to Other Religions
, 104.

53.
Roger Williams,
George Fox Digg’d out of His Burrowes
, ed. Rev. J. Lewis Diman, in
The Complete Writings of Roger Williams
, 7 vols. (New York: Russell and Russell, 1963), 5:125.

54.
Daniel,
Islam and the West
, 283, also 13, 32, 39, 41, 231, 234–35, 240, 287, 341, 382.

55.
Williams,
George Fox
, 5:125, in the margin.

56.
Marr,
Cultural Roots
, 89; Kidd,
American Christians and Islam
, 13–17.

57.
Quoted in Boyd Stanley Schlenther, “Whitefield, George (1714–1771),”
Oxford Dictionary of National Biography
, 58:643; Kidd,
American Christians and Islam
, 13–14.

58.
Quoted in Schlenther, “Whitefield,” 58:646.

59.
Benjamin Franklin,
Autobiography and Other Writings
, ed. Russell B. Nye (Cambridge, MA: Riverside Press, 1958), 97.

60.
A similar point about Catholics and Jews as the objects of Great Awakening opprobrium was first made by H. W. Brands,
The First American: The Life and Times of Benjamin Franklin
(New York: Anchor, 2002), 149.

61.
Bernard Bailyn,
The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution
, enlarged ed. (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1992), 63.

62.
Ibid., 35–52; Pauline Maier,
From Resistance to Revolution: Colonial Radicals and the Development of American Opposition to Britain, 1765–1776
(New York: Vintage, 1974), 27–48.

63.
The first to note this as a transatlantic phenomenon that impacted the American colonies was Bailyn,
Ideological Origins
, 63–64 n. 8. See also Allison,
Crescent Obscured
, 47, 52–53, 56; Kidd,
American Christians and Islam
, 18; Marr,
Cultural Roots
, 23–26.

64.
Allison,
Crescent Obscured
, 35, 57–59.

65.
Bailyn,
Ideological Origins
, 36.

66.
Ibid., 63–64 n. 8; Allison,
Crescent Obscured
, 47, 52–53, 56.

67.
John Trenchard and Thomas Gordon,
Cato’s Letters, or Essays on Liberty, Civil and Religious, and Other Important Subjects
, ed. Ronald Hamowy, 2 vols. (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 1995), 2:526.

68.
Ibid., 1:183.

69.
Marking 1750 as a turning point in British maritime control of the Mediterranean, see Linda Colley,
Captives: Britain, Empire and the World, 1600–1850
(London: Jonathan Cape, 2002), 103.

70.
Trenchard and Gordon,
Cato’s Letters
, 1:461.

71.
Caroline Finkel,
Osman’s Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1923
(New York: Basic Books, 2005), 200–201, 325, 329.

72.
Trenchard and Gordon,
Cato’s Letters
, 1:462, 470–71.

73.
Ibid., 1:224, 333, 350–76, 381–82, 394, 403, 2:941.

74.
Ibid., 2:907.

75.
Bailyn,
Ideological Origins
, 35–36, 44–52; Allison,
Crescent Obscured
, 47, 52–53.

76.
Samuel West, “On the Right to Rebel Against Governors,” in
American Political Writing During the Founding Era, 1760–1805
, ed. Charles S. Hyneman and Donald S. Lutz, 2 vols. (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 1983), 1:438.

77.
Curtis, “Stereotypes,” in
Encyclopedia of Muslim-American History
, 2:530.

78.
C. A. Patrides, “ ‘The Bloody and Cruell Turke’: The Background of a Renaissance Commonplace,”
Studies in the Renaissance
10 (1963): 126–35; Kevin M. McCarthy, “The Derisive Use of Turk and Turkey,”
American Speech
45, no. 1–2 (Spring–Summer 1970): 157–59.

79.
“Mahometan,”
Oxford English Dictionary
, 13 vols. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970), 6:38.

80.
Robert Battistini, “Glimpses of the Other Before Orientalism: The Muslim World in Early American Periodicals, 1785–1800,”
Early American Studies
8, no. 2 (Spring 2010): 474.

81.
Marr,
Cultural Roots
, 6.

82.
Battistini, “Glimpses of the Other,” 473–74.

83.
“Moor,”
Oxford English Dictionary
, 6:645.

84.
Ahmad Gunny,
Images of Islam in Eighteenth-Century Writings
(London: Grey Seal, 1996), 156; “Alcoran,”
Oxford English Dictionary
, 5:260.

85.
The earliest identification of the importance of Voltaire’s play in circulation in Britain, Dublin, and New York, but not Baltimore, was found by Allison,
Crescent Obscured
, 43–46.

86.
Allison,
Crescent Obscured
, 43–46. In opposition, Voltaire’s play is cast as “atypical” by Garcia,
Islam and the English Enlightenment
, 5.

87.
Jack B. Moore, introduction to Royall Tyler,
The Algerine Captive (1797)
, ed.
Jack B. Moore, 2 vols. in 1 (Gainesville, FL: Scholars Facsimiles and Reprints, 1967), 1:viii. English captivity accounts began in the sixteenth century, but the genre as nonfiction and fiction survived into the eighteenth. See Nabil Matar,
Turks, Moors and Englishmen in the Age of Discovery
(New York: Columbia University Press, 1999), 169–83; Colley,
Captives
, chapter 2, “The Crescent and the Sea,” and chapter 4, “Confronting Islam.”

88.
Malini Johar Schueller,
U.S. Orientalisms: Race, Nation, and Gender in Literature, 1790–1890
(Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1998), 49–58.

89.
Allison,
Crescent Obscured
, 35–59, 94; Marr,
Cultural Roots
, 7–8; Johar Schueller,
U.S. Orientalisms
, 4, 8–10; Battistini, “Glimpses of the Other,” 446, 472–73.

90.
Allison,
Crescent Obscured
, 43–46, 57–59, 94; Marr,
Cultural Roots
, 7–8; Kidd,
American Christians and Islam
, xii; Johar Schueller,
U.S. Orientalisms
, viii–ix, 4, 10; Battistini, “Glimpses of the Other,” 446.

91.
Daniel,
Islam and the West
, 101, 144–45, 242, 267; Tolan,
Saracens
, 54.

92.
Daniel,
Islam and the West
, 96–102.

93.
One historically extant Islamic name chosen by Voltaire might be Seide, or Zayd, who was the Prophet’s foster son. See Gunny,
Images of Islam
, 136.

94.
Jonathan A. C. Brown,
Muhammad: A Very Short Introduction
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 54.

95.
Voltaire,
Mahomet the Prophet or Fanaticism: A Tragedy in Five Acts
, trans. Robert L. Myers (New York: Frederick Ungar, 1964), 57.

96.
Voltaire,
Le Fanatisme
,
ou Mahomet le Prophète, tragédie
, in
Les oeuvres complètes de Voltaire
, ed. Christopher Todd (Oxford: Voltaire Foundation, 2002), 20B:207–8. In Voltaire’s original French, “Le glaive et l’Alcoran dans mes sanglantes mains, / Imposerait silence au reste des humains.”

97.
For Voltaire’s description of the character “Mahomet” and “sa physionomie de singe,” see Magdy Badir,
Voltaire et l’Islam
, in
Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century
, vol. 125 (Banbury, UK: Voltaire Foundation, 1974), 23; Robert Edward Mitchell, “The Genesis, Sources, Composition, and Reception of Voltaire’s
Mahomet
” (PhD diss., Ohio State University, 1961), 75; Gunny,
Images of Islam
, 137–38; Allison,
Crescent Obscured
, 43.

98.
Gunny,
Images of Islam
, 134, 136, 141; Ziad Elmarsafy,
The Enlightenment Qur’an: The Politics of Translation and the Construction of Islam
(Oxford: Oneworld Press, 2009), 81, 84.

99.
Badir,
Voltaire
, 96–97.

100.
Fatima Müge Göçek,
East Encounters West: France and the Ottoman Empire in the Eighteenth Century
(New York: Oxford University Press), 80.

101.
“La présence de l’ambassadeur turc risquait de provoquer un incident.” For the quotation, see Jeroom Verycruysse,
Les Voltairiens
(Nendeln: KTO Press, 1978), 1:x; Marvin Carlson,
Voltaire and the Theatre in the Eighteenth Century
(Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1998), 55.

102.
Where Voltaire describes the pope as “al capo della vera religione,” and the Prophet as “il fondatore d’una falsa e barbara seta,” see François-Marie Arouet de Voltaire,
Le Fanatisme, ou Mahomet le Prophète
(Paris: Garnier Frères, 1938), 222–23.

103.
Harold Lawton Bruce, “Voltaire on the English Stage,”
University of California Publications in Modern Philology
8 (1918): 57.

104.
Quoted in Arthur H. Scouten, ed.,
The London Stage, 1600–1800: A Calendar of Plays, Part 3: 1729–1747
(Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1961), 1104.