Thomas Jefferson's Qur'an: Islam and the Founders (61 page)

112.
Gaustad,
Roger Williams
, 107.

113.
Roger Williams,
George Fox Digg’d out of His Burrowes
, ed. Rev. J. Lewis Diman, vol. 5 of
The Complete Writings of Roger Williams
(New York: Russell and Russell, 1963), 125.

114.
Nussbaum,
Liberty of Conscience
, 37, 68.

115.
Gaustad,
Roger Williams
, 95–96.

116.
Ibid., 115; “soul liberty” discussed in William G. McLoughlin,
Soul Liberty: The Baptists’ Struggle in New England, 1630–1833
(Hanover, NH: Brown University Press/University Press of New England, 1991), 19–20; definition of Williams quoted in Kamen,
Toleration
, 187; Zagorin,
Toleration
, 196–208.

117.
Williams,
George Fox
, 5:125, 240; Thomas S. Kidd, “ ‘Is It Worse to Follow Mahomet Than the Devil?’ Early American Uses of Islam,”
Church History
72, no. 4 (December 2003): 777–78; Thomas S. Kidd,
American Christians and Islam: Evangelical Culture and Muslims from the Colonial Period to the Age of Terrorism
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009), 10–11.

118.
Gaustad,
Roger Williams
, 66, 75.

119.
Ibid., 100.

120.
Ibid., 93–94; Williams,
Bloudy Tenent
, 3:3.

121.
Williams,
Bloudy Tenent
, 3:3.

122.
Ibid., 3:3–4.

123.
Quoted in Naomi W. Cohen,
Jews in Christian America: The Pursuit of Religious Equality
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 17. Another view of the usage of “Turkes” with pagans suggests that Muslims linked to Jews “were not on the same plane with Christianity”; see Maxwell H. Morris, “Roger Williams and the Jews,”
American Jewish Archives
3 (January 1951): 27.

124.
Williams,
Bloudy Tenent
, 3:11.

125.
Marshall,
John Locke, Toleration and Early Enlightenment Culture
, 327.

126.
Williams,
Bloudy Tenent
, 3:142. The importance of Williams’s views of Muslims as tolerated beings is ably made by Marshall,
John Locke, Toleration and Early Enlightenment Culture
, 327.

127.
Kamen,
Toleration
, 181.

128.
Gaustad,
Roger Williams
, 16–20.

129.
John Cotton, “A Discourse about Civil Government,” in
The Sacred Rights of Conscience: Selected Readings on Religious Liberty and Church-State Relations in the American Founding
, ed. Daniel L. Dreisbach and Mark David Hall (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 2009), 133.

130.
Ibid., 145.

131.
Williams,
Bloudy Tenent
, 3:43. The New Testament verses Williams referred
to were these: “Let them both grow together until the harvest: and in the time of the harvest I will say to the reapers, Gather ye together first the tares, and bind them in bundles to burn them: but gather the wheat into my barn” (Matthew 13:30), and “The field is the world; the good seed are the children of the kingdom; but the tares are the children of the wicked one” (Matthew 13:38), King James Bible.

132.
Williams,
Bloudy Tenent
, 3:43; Zagorin,
Toleration
, 202.

133.
Gaustad,
Roger Williams
, 100; quote on 102.

134.
Williams,
Bloudy Tenent
, 3:10.

135.
Lecler,
Toleration
, 2:467; Gaustad,
Roger Williams
, 52. The two disagree on whether 1639 or 1638 was the year in which Williams briefly joined the Baptist faith.

136.
Gaustad,
Roger Williams
, 52–53.

137.
James Hutson,
Church and State
:
The First Two Centuries
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 24; Gaustad,
Roger Williams
, 53, 107–8.

138.
The status of Catholics in Williams’s Rhode Island, however, is debated. For the idea of Catholics as the one exception to his otherwise universal support for religious freedom, see Hutson,
Church and State
, 24. In contrast, the idea that Williams’s charter “made no exceptions … nor denied any civil privileges to Roman Catholics” is promoted by McLoughlin,
Soul Liberty
, 261; Nussbaum,
Liberty of Conscience
, 50, 66.

139.
Gaustad,
Roger Williams
, 106–7.

140.
Roger Williams, “To the Town of Providence,” in
The Letters of Roger Williams
, ed. John Russell Bartlett,
The Complete Writings of Roger Williams
(New York: Russell and Russell, 1963), 6:278–79; Nussbaum,
Liberty of Conscience
, 50.

141.
Ahmed,
Journey
, 46–50.

142.
Jacob R. Marcus,
The Colonial American Jew
, 3 vols. (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1970), 1:314–15.

143.
For the assumption that Williams did not include Muslims or Jews in officeholding, despite their “freedom of worship and equality before the courts,” see Morris, “Roger Williams and the Jews,” 27.

144.
I follow Kaplan in his helpful discussion of the practical division of public and private worship and religious dissent in Holland; see Kaplan,
Divided by Faith
, 177–78.

145.
Kamil,
Fortress of the Soul
, 869.

146.
Quoted ibid.

147.
Kaplan,
Divided by Faith
, 178, defines the word.

148.
Kamil,
Fortress of the Soul
, 871.

149.
Ibid., 875.

150.
I have quoted Kamil’s term “inclusiveness” in describing the Flushing Remonstrance; ibid.

151.
“Flushing Remonstrance, 1657,” in
The Sacred Rights of Conscience: Selected Readings on Religious Liberty and Church-State Relations in the American Founding
, ed. Daniel L. Dreisbach and Mark David Hall (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 2009), 108–9.

152.
Ibid.

153.
Ibid.

154.
Kamil,
Fortress of the Soul
, 872; Martin Marty,
Pilgrims in Their Own Land
(New York: Penguin, 1984), 71.

155.
Quoted in Gaustad,
Roger Williams
, 113.

156.
Quoted ibid.

157.
Quoted ibid., 114. Similar universal protections for religious freedom appeared in the Quaker
William Penn’s 1682 laws for the government of Pennsylvania, but Penn made no explicit mention of Muslims in his treatise on the rights of conscience; see Hutson,
Church and State
, 37; Matar, “Turbanned Nations,” 77.

158.
Gaustad,
Roger Williams
, 100.

159.
See Perry Miller,
Roger Williams: His Contribution to the American Tradition
(Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1953); Leroy Moore, “Religious Liberty: Roger Williams and the Revolutionary Era,”
Church History
34 (1965): 68.

160.
Moore, “Religious Liberty,” 68.

161.
Gaustad,
Roger Williams
, 117; Moore, “Religious Liberty,” 65–66; Martha Nussbaum,
Liberty of Conscience
, 66–69.

162.
Gaustad asserts that neither Thomas Jefferson nor James Madison borrowed from Williams, but insists that Locke did. See Gaustad,
Roger Williams
, 117; Edwin S. Gaustad,
Sworn on the Altar of God: A Religious Biography of Thomas Jefferson
(Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans, 1996), 72.

163.
John Marshall,
John Locke: Resistance, Religion, and Responsibility
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 60–61. Hereafter cited as
John Locke.

164.
For the best comparison of the differences between Williams and Locke, see Nussbaum,
Liberty of Conscience
, 67–68.

165.
Moore, “Religious Liberty,” 66. For the Christian underpinnings of Locke’s theory, see Jeremy Waldron,
God, Locke, and Equality: Christian Foundations of John Locke’s Political Thought
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 12–20.

166.
Marshall,
John Locke
, 367. This idea of a Christian duty is Marshall’s idea.

167.
I am indebted to the pathbreaking work on Locke and Islam by G. A. Russell, “Introduction: The Seventeenth Century: The Age of ‘Arabick,’ ” 1–19, and “The Impact of
The Philosophus Autodidactus
: Pocockes, John Locke, and the Society of Friends,” 236–53, both in
The “Arabick” Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England
, ed. G. A. Russell (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1994); Matar, “Turbanned Nations,” 1–19, 67–77; G. J. Toomer,
Eastern Wisedome and Learning: The Study of Arabic in Seventeenth-Century England
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996), 113 n. 36, 221, 265–68; Marshall,
John Locke, Toleration and Early Enlightenment Culture
, 388–95, 593–617.

168.
Russell, “
Philosophus
,” 237.

169.
Ibid., 8.

170.
Matar,
Islam in Britain
, 1–20, 21–49.

171.
While Russell believes this to be the case (“
Philosophus
,” 236–38), Toomer,
Eastern Wisedome
, 267 n. 258, disputes this, pointing out that Locke never took exams in Arabic, but instead focused on Latin and Hebrew at Westminster.

172.
Russell, “
Philosophus
,” 239; Toomer,
Eastern Wisedome
, 113 n. 36.

173.
Marshall,
John Locke, Toleration and Early Enlightenment Culture
, 389–90.

174.
Quoted in Russell, “
Philosophus
,” 242.

175.
Matar,
Islam in Britain
, 98–102.

176.
Russell, “
Philosophus
,” 225–26, 229–31. See Lenn Evan Goodman, trans.,
Ibn Tufayl’s Hayy Ibn Yaqzan: A Philosophical Tale
(New York: Twayne, 1972). In this process of intellectual and spiritual self-realization, the protagonist evolves into autodidactic omniscience, which explains the English for the Latin title “The Self-Taught Philosopher.” For a study of how the text diffused throughout Europe and how it impacted Locke via Pococke, see Avner Ben-Zaken,
Reading Hayy Ibn-Yaqzan: A Cross-Cultural History of Autodidacticism
(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2011), 5, 9–10, 102–3, 119–24, 137–39, 161–70, 181.

177.
Samar Attar,
The Vital Roots of the European Enlightenment: Ibn Tufayl’s Influence on Modern Western Thought
(New York: Lexington Books, 2007), 49–60; Garcia,
Islam and the English Enlightenment
, 133–34.

178.
Attar,
Vital Roots
, 19–31.

179.
Cotton Mather,
The Christian Philosopher
, ed. Winton U. Solberg (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994), 11–12.

180.
Russell, “
Philosophus
,” 224–65.

181.
Ibid.; J. R. Milton, “Locke, John (1632–1704),”
Oxford Dictionary of National Biography
, 58 vols. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 34:216–28.

182.
Attar,
Vital Roots
, 49–50.

183.
Marshall,
John Locke
, 6–7, 11, 14, 59–60.

184.
John Locke,
Epistola de Tolerantia: A Letter on Toleration
, ed. Raymond Klibansky, trans. J. W. Gough (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1968), 3–4. For the seventeenth-century
English translation, I also use John Locke,
A Letter Concerning Toleration (1689)
, ed. James H. Tully (Indianapolis: Hackett, 2010). I refer to the Latin version hereafter as Locke,
Epistola
, and the English as Locke,
Letter Concerning Toleration (1689)
; P. M. Holt,
A Seventeenth-Century Defender of Islam:
Henry Stubbe (1632–1676) and His Book
(London: Dr. Williams’s Trust, 1972), 11.

185.
E. S. De Beer, ed.,
The Correspondence of John Locke
, 2 vols. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1976), 1:109–12.

186.
Tully, introduction to Locke,
Letter Concerning Toleration (1689)
, 3–4.

187.
De Beer,
Correspondence
, 1:111.

188.
For the most in-depth study
of Stubbe’s impact in England, but without reference to Locke, see Garcia,
Islam and the English Enlightenment
, 30–59.

189.
P. M. Holt, “The Treatment of Arab History by Prideaux, Ockley, and Sale,” in
Historians of the Middle East
, ed. Bernard Lewis and P. M. Holt (London: Oxford University Press, 1962), 293–94; P. M. Holt,
Defender of Islam
, 19; Garcia,
Islam and the English Enlightenment
, 30–59.