1812: The Navy's War (52 page)
As one of his first acts, Cochrane extended the commercial blockade to include New England. The British blockade now ran from the Canadian border to Louisiana. Since General Ross and the additional troops needed to conduct substantial raids would not arrive until summer, Cochrane concentrated on the blockade. At the same time, he ordered his subordinates to carry out what raids they could. He wrote to Admiral Cockburn on April 24 that Americans in the seaports towns need to “be taught to know that they are now at the mercy of an invading foe.”
Cochrane also planned to encourage slaves to leave their masters and join the British army. Luring slaves away from their masters was part of his attack on the American economy, just as the blockade was. He hoped to augment his strike force with ex-slaves and at the same time deprive the local economy of essential manpower. On April 2 Cochrane issued a proclamation urging slaves to join the British army or become “free settlers into some of His Majesty’s colonies.” He promised to receive them aboard the king’s ships “or at the military posts that may be established upon or near the coast of the United States.” He ordered Rear Admiral Cockburn to establish posts in Chesapeake Bay to receive the refugees. Bathurst prohibited Cochrane from encouraging slaves “to rise upon their masters.” The admiral was expected to entice them into leaving peacefully, which in most cases they did.
Cochrane’s blockade made getting in and out of port more difficult. Commerce was brought to a standstill. American exports fell to seven million from forty-five million in 1811, even with the trade restrictions in force during that year. The president’s embargo, which was not repealed until April, had helped the British blockade. Not wanting to risk their ships, merchants kept them in port. International and coastal trade dwindled. At the same time, however, privateers were managing to get to sea—even those sailing from Baltimore—and they were harassing Britain’s commerce everywhere, particularly in the West Indies and around the British Isles. Merchants, whose fleets were sitting idle in port, often invested in privateering enterprises, which sometimes were profitable, but sometimes not.
A FEW AMERICAN warships did manage to get to sea, and the successes they had enhanced the reputation of the American navy, which would be of signal importance during the peace talks and after the war. On December 4, 1813, in cold, dirty weather, Commodore Rodgers slipped out of Narragansett Bay in the
President
. Two days later he stopped the schooner
Comet
, and when he discovered she had been captured by the
Ramillies
and the
Loire
and had a British prize crew sailing her to Halifax, he took the British crew prisoner and set the
Comet
free. He then continued on to the Canaries and, afterward, ran down the fifteenth parallel to the West Indies, where he patrolled to windward of Barbados, and in January captured two armed merchantmen. Beginning on January 16, he cruised along the northern coast of South America. Finding nothing, he shaped a coarse for Puerto Rico and sailed through the Mona Passage. He then passed northeast of the Bahamas and steered toward the northern coast of Florida. Off St. Augustine he captured a British schooner and then continued north, running into the blockading squadron off Charleston, South Carolina. When he attempted to engage one of the warships, the whole fleet came after him, but he managed to escape and continued on northward. He happened on another blockading squadron off Delaware Bay in a heavy fog. The number of signal guns sounding around the
President
made him give up the idea of engaging one of the enemy ships, and he sailed on.
President
. Two days later he stopped the schooner
Comet
, and when he discovered she had been captured by the
Ramillies
and the
Loire
and had a British prize crew sailing her to Halifax, he took the British crew prisoner and set the
Comet
free. He then continued on to the Canaries and, afterward, ran down the fifteenth parallel to the West Indies, where he patrolled to windward of Barbados, and in January captured two armed merchantmen. Beginning on January 16, he cruised along the northern coast of South America. Finding nothing, he shaped a coarse for Puerto Rico and sailed through the Mona Passage. He then passed northeast of the Bahamas and steered toward the northern coast of Florida. Off St. Augustine he captured a British schooner and then continued north, running into the blockading squadron off Charleston, South Carolina. When he attempted to engage one of the warships, the whole fleet came after him, but he managed to escape and continued on northward. He happened on another blockading squadron off Delaware Bay in a heavy fog. The number of signal guns sounding around the
President
made him give up the idea of engaging one of the enemy ships, and he sailed on.
On February 18 Rodgers was off Sandy Hook when he saw two British warships approaching. One was a small schooner, but the other was a frigate. As he prepared for battle, the frigate unexpectedly fled. She was the 38-gun
Loire
. Her captain, Thomas Brown, was following Admiralty orders to avoid combat with the heavy American frigates. Rodgers went after her, but an American revenue cutter happened on the scene and told him he was chasing a seventy-four. Whether Rodgers believed that or not, other ships of the blockading squadron were approaching, and he decided to run for port, reaching the safety of New York Harbor, much to London’s annoyance. The Admiralty wanted the
President
more than any other ship.
Loire
. Her captain, Thomas Brown, was following Admiralty orders to avoid combat with the heavy American frigates. Rodgers went after her, but an American revenue cutter happened on the scene and told him he was chasing a seventy-four. Whether Rodgers believed that or not, other ships of the blockading squadron were approaching, and he decided to run for port, reaching the safety of New York Harbor, much to London’s annoyance. The Admiralty wanted the
President
more than any other ship.
It was another disappointing cruise for Rodgers, but it was significant that Captain Brown decided not to challenge the
President
. When the war started, the captain of a 38-gun frigate who refused to engage even the largest American frigates would have been severely reprimanded. In fact, it is hard to imagine any British captain avoiding such an opportunity. Captain Brown’s flight showed the respect the American navy had attained in the eyes of the Admiralty and the officers of the Royal Navy. The change in British attitudes would serve the U.S. Navy and the country well in the future.
President
. When the war started, the captain of a 38-gun frigate who refused to engage even the largest American frigates would have been severely reprimanded. In fact, it is hard to imagine any British captain avoiding such an opportunity. Captain Brown’s flight showed the respect the American navy had attained in the eyes of the Admiralty and the officers of the Royal Navy. The change in British attitudes would serve the U.S. Navy and the country well in the future.
Rodgers was anxious to return to sea as quickly as possible. Secretary Jones offered him a choice of assignments. One was to continue with the
President
; another was to become skipper of the new 44-gun frigate
Guerriere
, nearing completion at Philadelphia. Rodgers chose the new frigate. Before taking command, he traveled to Washington to confer with Jones. On the way, he visited his family at Havre de Grace. He had not seen them since the war began. Needless to say, the sight of his half-burned house did not make him enamored of the British.
President
; another was to become skipper of the new 44-gun frigate
Guerriere
, nearing completion at Philadelphia. Rodgers chose the new frigate. Before taking command, he traveled to Washington to confer with Jones. On the way, he visited his family at Havre de Grace. He had not seen them since the war began. Needless to say, the sight of his half-burned house did not make him enamored of the British.
The
Guerriere
was launched in Philadelphia on June 20, 1814, amid much ceremony. At the same time that Rodgers took command, he also assumed responsibility for the Delaware flotilla from Commodore Alexander Murray. Secretary Jones had ordered Rodgers to act against the British not only on the Delaware but in Chesapeake Bay as well. Since the
Guerriere
was blockaded, Rodgers could potentially play an important part in defending Baltimore and perhaps Washington.
Guerriere
was launched in Philadelphia on June 20, 1814, amid much ceremony. At the same time that Rodgers took command, he also assumed responsibility for the Delaware flotilla from Commodore Alexander Murray. Secretary Jones had ordered Rodgers to act against the British not only on the Delaware but in Chesapeake Bay as well. Since the
Guerriere
was blockaded, Rodgers could potentially play an important part in defending Baltimore and perhaps Washington.
While Rodgers was at least able to get the
President
to sea, the
United States
,
Macedonian
, and
Hornet
remained trapped in the Thames River, much to Commodore Decatur’s dismay. Traitors in New London County reported his every move to Captain Sir Thomas Masterman Hardy, making an escape impossible. Decatur had some hope for action, when in January 1814 the 44-gun heavy frigate
Endymion
, under Captain Henry Hope, joined Hardy’s squadron. Hope and his colleague Captain Hazzard Stackpole, skipper of the 38-gun
Statira
, proposed single-ship duels—the
United States
against the
Endymion
and the
Statira
against the
Macedonian
. Hardy and Decatur liked the idea at first, and they exchanged messages, but in the end Hardy decided against the duel between the larger ships, and Decatur declined a fight between the smaller ones on the ground that he anticipated Hardy putting a crew of his best fighters aboard the
Statira
, and in order to do the same for the
Macedonian
, Decatur would have to weaken the crews of his other ships and make their later escapes more precarious. So the duels never came off.
President
to sea, the
United States
,
Macedonian
, and
Hornet
remained trapped in the Thames River, much to Commodore Decatur’s dismay. Traitors in New London County reported his every move to Captain Sir Thomas Masterman Hardy, making an escape impossible. Decatur had some hope for action, when in January 1814 the 44-gun heavy frigate
Endymion
, under Captain Henry Hope, joined Hardy’s squadron. Hope and his colleague Captain Hazzard Stackpole, skipper of the 38-gun
Statira
, proposed single-ship duels—the
United States
against the
Endymion
and the
Statira
against the
Macedonian
. Hardy and Decatur liked the idea at first, and they exchanged messages, but in the end Hardy decided against the duel between the larger ships, and Decatur declined a fight between the smaller ones on the ground that he anticipated Hardy putting a crew of his best fighters aboard the
Statira
, and in order to do the same for the
Macedonian
, Decatur would have to weaken the crews of his other ships and make their later escapes more precarious. So the duels never came off.
During the winter Decatur remained alert for the possibility of escape, but the occasion never arose. Beginning on March 17 he tended to some unfinished—and especially unpleasant—business, presiding at the court-martial of Lieutenant William Cox of the
Chesapeake
, four midshipmen, and other men charged with various misdeeds during the fight with the
Shannon
. Master Commandant Biddle and ten lieutenants made up the rest of the court. The trial ended in May, and all were found guilty.
Chesapeake
, four midshipmen, and other men charged with various misdeeds during the fight with the
Shannon
. Master Commandant Biddle and ten lieutenants made up the rest of the court. The trial ended in May, and all were found guilty.
With the coming of warm spring weather in southern Connecticut, Secretary Jones saw no hope of the
United States
and
Macedonian
escaping. He ordered Decatur to secure both ships in the Thames River permanently and repair to New York with most of the crew of the
United States
. Decatur took the ships upriver fourteen miles, far beyond Gales Ferry, rearranged their guns for better protection, and stationed gunboats and shore batteries to support them. He then left skeleton crews aboard and proceeded to New York with the rest of his men. Captain Jacob Jones and the crew of the
Macedonian
went to Lake Ontario. Biddle and the
Hornet
remained to protect the frigates, a duty Biddle hated.
United States
and
Macedonian
escaping. He ordered Decatur to secure both ships in the Thames River permanently and repair to New York with most of the crew of the
United States
. Decatur took the ships upriver fourteen miles, far beyond Gales Ferry, rearranged their guns for better protection, and stationed gunboats and shore batteries to support them. He then left skeleton crews aboard and proceeded to New York with the rest of his men. Captain Jacob Jones and the crew of the
Macedonian
went to Lake Ontario. Biddle and the
Hornet
remained to protect the frigates, a duty Biddle hated.
Biddle did not give up trying to escape, however, and on November 18, 1814, he slipped out of the Thames in bad weather and made his way to New York, where he would be serving again under Decatur. “It is a most infamous arrangement that the
Hornet
. . . should be placed under the orders of Commodore Decatur,” Biddle complained to his brother.
Hornet
. . . should be placed under the orders of Commodore Decatur,” Biddle complained to his brother.
In New York, Decatur had command of the
President
, which Rodgers had left when he became skipper of the new
Guerriere
. The
President
remained trapped by the blockade, but Decatur had plenty to do ashore. As the threat of an invasion increased, Secretary Jones ordered him to help with the city’s defense and also be prepared to move his men to Philadelphia, should an attack come there. At one point in July, Jones ordered Decatur to take over for Chauncey at Sackets Harbor when Chauncey became ill, but he recovered, and Decatur remained in New York.
President
, which Rodgers had left when he became skipper of the new
Guerriere
. The
President
remained trapped by the blockade, but Decatur had plenty to do ashore. As the threat of an invasion increased, Secretary Jones ordered him to help with the city’s defense and also be prepared to move his men to Philadelphia, should an attack come there. At one point in July, Jones ordered Decatur to take over for Chauncey at Sackets Harbor when Chauncey became ill, but he recovered, and Decatur remained in New York.
Captain Charles Gordon and the
Constellation
continued to be trapped by the blockade as well. He hoped to run the
Constellation
out to sea during a winter storm. Secretary Jones sent him sailing orders on January 5, cautioning him, as he did every captain, not to give or accept “a challenge ship to ship directly or indirectly.” On February 11, during a stretch of particularly bad weather, Gordon saw his chance. He brought the
Constellation
from the safety of the Elizabeth River out to Hampton Roads in heavy rain. The wind was fair for running out to sea, and he sent a tender to scout the Chesapeake Capes. When the wind suddenly turned, however, the tender had to scurry back, and Gordon was forced to return to the protection of the river. He did not get another opportunity. Spring came all too soon, and he had to forget about racing out to sea and concentrate on defending Norfolk. In April, Jones directed him not to attempt an escape, for fear he’d lose the ship and endanger Norfolk and Gosport. It was a bitter pill for Gordon. He remained trapped for the rest of the war.
Constellation
continued to be trapped by the blockade as well. He hoped to run the
Constellation
out to sea during a winter storm. Secretary Jones sent him sailing orders on January 5, cautioning him, as he did every captain, not to give or accept “a challenge ship to ship directly or indirectly.” On February 11, during a stretch of particularly bad weather, Gordon saw his chance. He brought the
Constellation
from the safety of the Elizabeth River out to Hampton Roads in heavy rain. The wind was fair for running out to sea, and he sent a tender to scout the Chesapeake Capes. When the wind suddenly turned, however, the tender had to scurry back, and Gordon was forced to return to the protection of the river. He did not get another opportunity. Spring came all too soon, and he had to forget about racing out to sea and concentrate on defending Norfolk. In April, Jones directed him not to attempt an escape, for fear he’d lose the ship and endanger Norfolk and Gosport. It was a bitter pill for Gordon. He remained trapped for the rest of the war.
Secretary Jones expected more from the six sloops of war authorized by Congress on March 3, 1813, than he did from the
President
, the
Constitution
, or the
United States
. To be sure, the sloops were few in number, but Jones thought they would perform better as commerce raiders than either frigates or brigs, and certainly better than seventy-fours. Naval constructor William Doughty designed three of the sloops,
Argus
,
Ontario
, and
Erie
.
Argus
was built at the Washington Navy Yard under Doughty’s supervision.
Ontario
and
Erie
were built in Baltimore under the supervision of Thomas Kemp.
President
, the
Constitution
, or the
United States
. To be sure, the sloops were few in number, but Jones thought they would perform better as commerce raiders than either frigates or brigs, and certainly better than seventy-fours. Naval constructor William Doughty designed three of the sloops,
Argus
,
Ontario
, and
Erie
.
Argus
was built at the Washington Navy Yard under Doughty’s supervision.
Ontario
and
Erie
were built in Baltimore under the supervision of Thomas Kemp.
When the
Erie
was ready for her first cruise, her skipper, Master Commandant Charles G. Ridgely, found that he could not get past the blockade. When spring came, Jones gave up on Ridgely ever getting to sea and on April 4 ordered him to lay up the ship in Baltimore and proceed with his officers and crew to reinforce Chauncey at Sackets Harbor.
Erie
was ready for her first cruise, her skipper, Master Commandant Charles G. Ridgely, found that he could not get past the blockade. When spring came, Jones gave up on Ridgely ever getting to sea and on April 4 ordered him to lay up the ship in Baltimore and proceed with his officers and crew to reinforce Chauncey at Sackets Harbor.
The
Ontario
was ready to sail by the end of January, but Master Commandant Robert T. Spence could not get her past the blockade either. When spring came, Jones also ordered him to Sackets Harbor with his officers. The petty officers and the rest of the crew went to Joshua Barney’s Flotilla Service in Baltimore. Spence became ill, however, and could not go to Lake Ontario. He remained in Baltimore and participated in its defense.
Ontario
was ready to sail by the end of January, but Master Commandant Robert T. Spence could not get her past the blockade either. When spring came, Jones also ordered him to Sackets Harbor with his officers. The petty officers and the rest of the crew went to Joshua Barney’s Flotilla Service in Baltimore. Spence became ill, however, and could not go to Lake Ontario. He remained in Baltimore and participated in its defense.
CHAPTER TWENTY-THREE
The
Essex
Essex
O
N JULY 6, 1814, at five o’clock in the afternoon, seamen from the 32-gun frigate
Essex
rowed Captain David Porter in a whaleboat onto the beach at Babylon, New York, looking as if they had been through a great ordeal. New York militiamen were soon on the scene, and alert to the possibility of an enemy invasion, they took all the strangers into custody, assuming they were British spies. When Porter convinced them who he actually was, they treated him like a hero, providing him with a wagon so that he could bring his boat and men to Brooklyn and from there cross the East River to New York City to tell his story to the world. It was an amazing one.
N JULY 6, 1814, at five o’clock in the afternoon, seamen from the 32-gun frigate
Essex
rowed Captain David Porter in a whaleboat onto the beach at Babylon, New York, looking as if they had been through a great ordeal. New York militiamen were soon on the scene, and alert to the possibility of an enemy invasion, they took all the strangers into custody, assuming they were British spies. When Porter convinced them who he actually was, they treated him like a hero, providing him with a wagon so that he could bring his boat and men to Brooklyn and from there cross the East River to New York City to tell his story to the world. It was an amazing one.
Porter’s odyssey began on October 27, 1812, when he stood out beyond the Delaware Capes in the
Essex
with orders to rendezvous with Commodore Bainbridge in the
Constitution
and Master Commandant Lawrence in the
Hornet
for a commerce-destroying mission in the South Atlantic. Porter’s first place of rendezvous was the Cape Verde Islands, off the west coast of Africa. He arrived at Porto Praya on November 27, but not finding Bainbridge, he quickly moved on, sailing for the northeast coast of Brazil. On the way, on December 11, he captured the British packet
Nocton
. She had £11,000 sterling in specie aboard (approximately $55,000). He took the money and sent the packet to the United States in charge of Lieutenant William B. Finch, but on January 5, 1813, the ubiquitous Captain Richard Byron in the
Belvidera
captured her.
Essex
with orders to rendezvous with Commodore Bainbridge in the
Constitution
and Master Commandant Lawrence in the
Hornet
for a commerce-destroying mission in the South Atlantic. Porter’s first place of rendezvous was the Cape Verde Islands, off the west coast of Africa. He arrived at Porto Praya on November 27, but not finding Bainbridge, he quickly moved on, sailing for the northeast coast of Brazil. On the way, on December 11, he captured the British packet
Nocton
. She had £11,000 sterling in specie aboard (approximately $55,000). He took the money and sent the packet to the United States in charge of Lieutenant William B. Finch, but on January 5, 1813, the ubiquitous Captain Richard Byron in the
Belvidera
captured her.
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