A History of the Roman World (81 page)

5
L
IVIUS ANDRONICUS
. Horace (
Ep.
, ii, 1, 62) wrote: ‘
Ad nostrum tempus Livi scriptoris ab aevo
’. Cf. the lines of Porcius Licinus (second half of the second century
BC
): ‘Poenico bello secundo Musa pinnato gradu/Intulit se bellicosam in Romuli gentem feram’.

6
N
AEVIUS
. The tradition about his imprisonment has been questioned (e.g. more recently again by H. B. Mattingly,
Historia
, 1960, 414 ff.), but wartime censorship may have muzzled free speech to an unparalleled extent. See T. Frank,
AJPhil.
, 1927, 105 ff. The charge would be made under the restriction imposed by the Twelve Tables on offensive
carmina
. See A. Momigliano,
JRS
, 1942, 120 ff.
Contaminatio
may mean adapting borrowed scenes (so W. Beare) rather than interweaving two plots.

7
E
NNIUS
. See
Ennius
(
Entretiens Hardt
, xvii, 1971), especially ch. iv by E. Badian on the tradition about the poet’s friends in Rome.

8
R
OMAN ART
. See R. B. Bandinelli,
Rome, the Centre of Power
(1971); J. M. C. Toynbee,
The Art of the Romans
(1956).

9
E
TRUSCAN ART
. For a critical assessment cf. S. Casson,
CAH
, iv, 442. But see also D. Randall-Maclver,
The Etruscans
(1927); J. D. Beazley,
Etruscan Vase-Painting
(1947); P. J. Riis,
Etruscan Art
(1953) and other works cited above, p. 446 n. 30.

10
G
EMS
. A specimen was found in 1780 in the sarcophagus and on the skeleton hand of Scipio Barbatus, consul in 298.

11
P
AINTINGS
. The Esquiline painting (reproduced, e.g. in Bandinelli, op. cit., supra n. 8, p. 111 and
CAH
, Plates, iv, 82) shows in three superimposed bands scenes which include a surrender and another in which two generals (Roman and Italian?) are parleying. One is named Q. Fabius, perhaps Q. Fabius Rullianus, consul of 322 or his son. The painting is to be dated to the first half of the third century:
Roma Medio-Repubblicana
(1973), 200. Another early example is found on the fresco on the façade on the Tomb of the Scipios.

1
R
OMAN RELIGION
. Four standard works are W. Warde Fowler,
The Religious Experience of the Roman People
(1911), to which this chapter owes much, and
The Roman Festivals
(1889); G. Wissowa,
Religion und Kultus der Römer
(1912); K. Latte,
Römische Religionsgeschichte
(1960). See also C. Bailey,
Phases in the Religion of Ancient Rome
(1932); F. Altheim,
History of Roman Religion
(1938), valuable for the Italian setting of Roman religion, but to be used with caution (so also should G. Radke,
Die Götter Altitaliens
(1965)); J. Bayet,
Histoire politique et psychologique de la religion romaine
, edn 2 (1969); H. J. Rose,
Primitive Culture in Italy (1926)
; G. De Sanctis,
SR
, IV, ii, 1, 121 ff. (1953); H. Wagenvoort,
Roman Dynamism
(1947). Two excellent introductory volumes are H. J. Rose,
Ancient Roman Religion
(1949) and R. M. Ogilvie,
The Romans and their Gods
(1969). For surveys of relatively recent work on Roman religion see A. K. Michels,
Cl. Weekly
, 1955, 25 ff.; H. J. Rose,
JRS
, 1960, 161 ff.; R. Schilling,
Aufstieg NRW
(1972), 1, ii, 317 ff.

2
N
UMEN
. Quotation: Warde Fowler,
Religious Experience of the Roman People
, 8. For discussion of
numen
as equivalent of the idea expressed in the Pacific by
mana
see H. J. Rose,
Ancient Roman Religion
(1949), ch. i, and H. Wagenvoort,
Roman Dynamism
(1947), ch. 3.
Numen
is not identified with a deity until the Augustan age: F. Pfister, Pauly-Wissowa,
s.v.
and S. Weinstock,
JRS
, 1949, 167.

3
L
ARES
. Some scholars maintain that the Lares were the spirits of the dead and the Lar Familiaris the spirit of the family ancestor; if so, this would be evidence of worship of
the dead and ancestor worship. But the dead in Roman practice were honoured at their graves, not in the house. Cf. C. Bailey,
Phases in the Religion of Ancient Rome
(1932), 103 ff. and H. J. Rose,
OCD
, edn 2,
s.v.

4
D
UMÉZIL
. For G. Dumézil’s theory that Rome had three gods (Jupiter, Mars, Quirinus) corresponding with three social classes (priests, warriors and herdsman), see above, p. 451 n. 9.

5
T
HE IGUVINE TABLETS
. See J. W. Poultney,
The Bronze Tablets of Iguvium
(1959). These tablets, the records of a religious brotherhood, throw a wealth of light on early religious belief and practice. For a brief account of the survival of this ritual in the ‘Elevation of the Ceri’ at modern Gubbio (Iguvium) see R. S. Conway,
Ancient Italy and Modern Religion
(1932). On the survival of other ancient rites in modern Italy see T. Ashby,
Some Italian Scenes and Festivals
(1929).

6
D
I INDIGETES
. The view of Wissowa that
di indigetes
meant the old indigenous gods and the
di novensides
the newcomers, has been challenged by F. Altheim (
Hist. Rom. Rel.
, 106 ff.), H. Wagevoort (
Roman Dynamism
, 83 ff.) and others, but little agreement has been reached about the meaning of these words.

7
T
HE BACCHANALIA
. Livy gives a lively, though highly-coloured, account of the scandal. The so-called
senatus consultum de Baccanalibus
contains the consuls’ instructions to the allies: Riccobono,
Fontes
, 240 ff. Cf. M. Gelzer,
Hermes
, 1936 (=
Kleine Schriften
, iii (1964), 256 ff.); A. H. McDonald,
JRS,
1944, 26 ff.; D. W. L. van Son,
Livius’ Behandeling van de Bacchanalia
(1960); A. J. Toynbee,
Hannibal’s Legacy,
ii, 387 ff.

8
O
RPHISM AND PYTHAGOREANISM
. Cf. R. S. Conway,
Ancient Italy and Modern Religion
ch. ii, ‘Orpheus in Italy’; in general, W. K. C. Guthrie,
Orpheus and Greek Religion,
edn 2 (1952). K. von Fritz,
Pythagorean Politics in Southern Italy
(1940).

9
T
HE SCIPIONIC CIRCLE AND STOICISM
. On the attitude of some members of the so-called ‘scipionic circle’ to the ancestral religion see E. Rawson,
JRS
, 1973, 161 ff. On Stoicism E. V. Arnold,
Roman Stoicism
(1900); F. H. Sandbach,
The Stoics
(1975).

1
I
NSCRIPTIONS, LAWS
. Republican inscriptions are published in
Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum
, vol. i, edn 2 (1893); A. Degrassi,
Inscriptiones Latinae Liberae Rei Publicae
2 vols (1957–63); H. Dessau,
Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae
(1892–1916). The number of inscriptions of early Republican times is of course infinitesimal compared with those of the the late Republic and Empire. Roman laws are published by S. Riccobono,
Fontes Iuris Romani Ante Iustiniani
, i, (1941).

2
F
ASTI AND CALENDARS
. These, respectively, are published in
Inscriptiones Italiae
, XIII, i (1947) and ii (1963). On the
annales
and their probable content see J. E. Crake,
Cl. Ph.
, 1940, 375 ff.; P. Fraccaro,
JRS
, 1957, 60 ff.; J. P. V. D. Balsdon,
Cl. Qu.
, 1953, 162. E. Rawson, however, has argued (
Cl. Qu.
, 1971, 158 ff.) that later writers did not in fact make much use of the Annales Maximi and that their annual publication did not continue after Mucius Scaevola (
usque ad P. Mucium
: Cicero,
de Orat.
, ii, 12, 52).

3
T
HE GALLIC DESTRUCTION
. See Livy, v, 49, 3; 50, 2; vi, l, 10. T. Frank (
Roman Buildings of the Republic
(1924), 53, 78, 83) believed in the survival of the Regia; this is denied by L. G. Roberts,
Mem. Amer. Acad. in Rome
, 1918, 55 ff. The matter is not discussed by F. E. Brown in his report on recent excavations in the Regia (
Entretiens Hardt
, xiii (1967), 47 ff.); he is concerned with the earliest phases and reports destruction by fire
c.
500
BC
or earlier. On traces of devastation by the Gallic raid in the city in general see E. Gjerstad,
Early Rome
, iii (1960), index
s.v.
Gallic invasion. If the Regia
was
sacked
and all its records destroyed, then the early
annales
which circulated later must have derived from a priestly reconstruction of the lost earlier material. R. M. Ogilvie’s examination of the early books of Livy, however, has led him to the belief (
Livy
, 6, n. 1) that ‘a number of
tabulae
, although not a complete set, survived from the period 509–390 (especially 460–390) and contained much more variegated material than is usually assumed’. On the other hand, E. Rawson (
Cl. Qu.
, 1971, 158 ff.) thinks that in fact later writers did not make much use of the Annales Maximi.

4
T
HE ECLIPSE
. Cicero (
de rep.
, i, 1, 25) says that the first observed (not merely computed) eclipse recorded in the Annales Maximi (and by Ennius) was ‘about 350 years after Rome was founded’. If 350 may be interpreted as 354, the eclipse of 21 June 400
BC
would be indicated. This would take the Tabulae back to
c.
400, and Cicero seems to suggest that earlier eclipses mentioned in the Annales were based on backward calculations from 400 rather than recorded by contemporary evidence. But even if there was a continuous record only from 400, nevertheless some fifth-century material may have survived, as suggested by R. M. Ogilvie (see n. 3 above) who finds very early material e.g. in Livy on 463 and 431
BC
.
    K. J. Beloch (
Griechische Geschichte
, IV, ii, 267) would read CCCC (400) for the figure CCC which a scribe had entered into the defective text of Cicero, but this later date is rejected by J. E. Crake,
Cl. Ph.
, 1940, 379 ff. For Beloch on the Fasti Triumphales see
Röm. Gesch.
, 1 ff.

5
T
HE HISTORIANS
. The standard collections of the fragments of the lost historians are H. Peter,
Historicorum Romanorum Fragmenta
, edn 2 (1906–14) and F. Jacoby,
Die Fragmente der Griechischen Historiker
(vol. iiic (1958), 845–927 contains the fragments of the Greek historians who dealt with Rome and Italy). Beside the general histories of literature, see valuable surveys of recent work; on the Greek historians by G. T. Griffith and on the Roman historians by A. H. McDonald in
Fifty (and Ten) Years of Classical Scholarship
, edn 2 (1968). 182 ff., 465 ff., and also McDonald on Republican history,
JRS
, 1960, 135 ff.
    
Timaeus
. See Jacoby,
FGrH,
n. 566. Also T. S. Brown,
Timaeus of Tauromenium
(1958) and A. Momigliano,
Terzo Contrib.
, 23 ff. (especially 44 ff. for Timaeus and Rome).
    
The Annalists.
An important survey is provided by E. Badian in
Latin Historians
(ed. T. A. Dorey, 1966), ch. i. On the individual annalists see also articles by A. H. McDonald,
OCD
, edn 2. Cf. M. Gelzer,
Kleine Schriften
, iii (1964), 51 ff.
    
Fabius Pictor.
See A. Momigliano,
Terzo Contributo
(1966), 55 ff. and D. Timpe,
Aufstieg NRW
, I, ii (1974), 928 ff. A Greek inscription from an ancient library in Tauromenium in Sicily has recently been found: see G. Manganaro,
Par. Pass.
, 1974, 389 ff., E. Badian,
Liverpool Classical Monthly
, i, 7, July 1976, 97 f. and Manganaro in A. Alföldi,
Römishche Frühgeschichte
(1976), 83 ff. The inscription summarizes Fabius’ work: ‘he investigated the arrival of Heracles in Italy and also (the return ?) of Lanoios (his ally ?) and Aeneas and (?Ascanias). Not(?) much later Romulus and Remus were born, and the foundation of Rome by Romulus, who (?first) ruled.’ Thus it is clear that Fabius did not neglect the foundation stories and Rome’s earliest period; he probably dealt briefly with the early Republic and then expanded as he reached the third century and his own times. For reference to Alföldi’s ideas of Fabius’ unreliability, see above, p. 472.
    
Cato.
On his
Origines
see W. A. Schröder,
M. Porcius Cato. Das erste Buch des Origines
(1971); A. E. Astin,
Cato the Censor
(1978), ch. 10. See also G. Calboli,
Cato: Oratio pro Rhodiensibus
(Bologna, 1978).
    
Licinius Macer, Valerius Antias and Aelius Tubero
. See Ogilvie,
Livy
, 7 ff.
    
Claudius Quadrigarius
, See M. Zimmerer,
Der Annalist Q. Claudius Quadrigarius
(1937).
    
Livy.
See especially P. G. Walsh,
Livy
(1961);
Livy
, ed. T. A. Dorey (1971; eight essays); Ogilvie,
Livy
; J. Briscoe,
Commentary on Livy, books xxxi–xxxiii
(1973).
    
Dio Cassius
. See F. Millar,
Cassius Dio
(1964).
    
Polybius
. See F. W. Walbank,
A Historical Commentary on Polybius
, i (1957), ii (1967), iii (1979);
Polybius
(Sather Classical Lectures, 1972) and
JRS
, 1962, 1 ff.; 1963, 1 ff. Cf also K. E. Petzold,
Studien zur Methode des Polybios
(1969);
Polybe, Entretiens Hardt
, vol. xx, 1973; D. Musti, ‘Polybios negli studi dell’ultimo ventennio (1950–1970)’,
Aufstieg NRW
, I, ii, (1974), 1114 ff.
    
Diodorus.
The passages of Diodorus which refer to early Roman history are conveniently printed in A. B. Drachmann,
Diodors römische Annalen bis 302 a. Chr.
(1912). On Perl’s
Kritische Untersuchungen zu Diodors Jahrzählung
(1957) see E. S. Staveley,
Cl. Rev.
, 1959, 158 ff.
    
Plutarch.
See R. H. Barrow,
Plutarch and his Times
(1967), C. P. Jones,
Plutarch and Rome
(1971), D. A. Russell,
Plutarch
(1973).