Are We Smart Enough to Know How Smart Animals Are? (50 page)

influence of, 147, 169, 265

and Theory of Mind, 131

metacognition, 229–34, 321

and consciousness, 229, 233–34

information seeking, 231–33,
231

and uncertainty response, 230–31,
231

Metamorphosis
(Kafka), 7, 13

Mike (chimpanzee), 170

mindreading, 132, 135

miracles, 43

mirror-anesthesia hypothesis, 53

mirror mark test, 321,
see also
mirror tests, and elephants; mirror tests, in gorillas; mirror tests, and monkeys; mirror tests, visual mark test

mirror neurons, 159

mirror tests:

and birds, 242, 244

and chimpanzees, 48–50

and dogs, 242

and elephants, 17–18, 157, 235–36,
236

in gorillas, 240

and monkeys, 242, 243

and self-awareness, 240–42

visual mark test, 235–36,
236
, 243–44

missing link, 160–61

Mito, Satsue, 51–52

modification, gradual, 43

mole, star-nosed, 8

mollusks, 245–52

monkeys:

communication by, 107–8

confirmism in, 256

cooperation in, 186

imitation in, 156

memory of, 205, 229, 230–31

neotropical, 83

and self-awareness, 240–41, 242

Moore, Bruce, 21

Morgan, Lloyd, 42

Morgan’s Canon, 42–43, 55, 321

morphology, 39

Morrell, Virginia, 128

Morris, Desmond, 222–23

The Naked Ape,
38

Morris Water Maze, 35

motivation, 34, 150

Mount Parnassus, 22

Mulcahy, Nicholas, 216

mutualism, 198–99

Nagel, Thomas, 9–11

Naked Ape, The
(Morris), 38

Natasha (chimpanzee), 208

Natua (dolphin), 230

natural selection, 23, 122–23

nature-nurture dilemma, 150

Neanderthals, 127

Neisser, Ulric, 238

nematode worms, 162

Neo-Creationism, 122

neophobia, 254

neurogeography, 115

neuroscience, 268, 273–74

Ngamba Island, Uganda, 152

Nim Chimpsky (chimpanzee), 99–100

Nishida, Toshisada, 171–73, 200

Nose (rhesus monkey), 257–58

nursing, mammalian, 74, 75

Oakley, Kenneth,
Man the Toolmaker,
76

object permanence, 98, 321

Occam’s razor, 43

O’Connell, Caitlin, 202

octopuses, 246–52,
246

brain of, 248

camouflage in, 250–51

life cycle of, 249

mimicry in, 251

recognition test, 247–48

tool use by, 94

uniqueness of, 249

World Cup predictions by, 105

operant conditioning, 31, 36, 37, 99

opossums, opposable thumbs of, 75

orangutans:

as escape artists, 81

floating peanut task, 92

future planning by, 216, 219–20

in Hominoid family, 80–81

memory in, 209

problem solving by, 84

tool use by, 81

orcas, brain size of, 248

os intermaxillare,
125, 126

Osnabrück Zoo, Germany, 245

Osvath, Mathias, 215

otter, Asian small-clawed, 32

overimitation,
see
imitation, overimitation

“overlord” position, 178–79,
179

oxytocin, 150

Palin, Sarah, 162

pandas, giant, 32

pangolins, 75

Panzee (chimpanzee), 138–39, 228

Parr, Lisa, 18–19

parrots:

cooperation among, 186

counting abilities of, 103–4

delayed gratification in, 225

imitation in, 156

language in, 98–99, 100–105

toolmaking by, 103

Peony (chimpanzee), 143

Pepperberg, Irene, 98–99, 100, 103–4, 105, 113

Pepsi (elephant), 235, 243

perception, 238

percussive stone technology, 83

Perdue, Bonnie, 32

Perry, Susan, 178, 180, 253

perspective taking, 132–56, 321, 322

in birds, 147–48,
147

in chimpanzees, 136, 138–40, 148–49

false-belief task, 148

and self-identity, 241

tie to bodies, 159

Pfungst, Oskar, 46–48, 53, 144

phylogeny, 28

Piaget, Jean, 102

Piak Nam Yai Island, 87–88

pigeons:

behavioral training of, 66, 73, 244

and brain size, 267

extrapolation of test results to other species, 53, 73

and memory, 163, 233

and Skinner, 37, 49,
50
, 59, 266

Planet Earth, 22–23

planning, 1, 2, 3, 26

Plato, 125

Plooij, Frans, 221

Plotnik, Joshua, 17, 18, 189, 235

politics, 68, 172–73, 201–3

Polynesia (African gray parrot), 100

porcupines, 75

power, drive for, 168–69, 172, 200

prefrontal cortex, 160

Premack, Ann, 54

Premack, David, 54, 121, 153

Primate Research Institute (PRI), Kyoto University, 119

primates:

brain expansion of, 176

chest beating by, 127

cognition of, 11–12

hands of,
14

imitation without rewards for, 154

intelligence of, 88

matrilineal order in, 177–78

as neophobic, 254

opposable thumbs of, 75

Prince, The
(Machiavelli), 168, 176, 200

Prior, Helmut, 244

problem solving, 65–66, 67–68, 84, 86, 87

proof-in-the-pudding experiment, 192–93, 194

Proust, Marcel,
In Search of Lost Time,
209–10, 212

Pulpo Paul (octopus), 105

purposiveness, 206–7

Pushinka (dog), 56

Pygmalion effect, 321,
see also
Pygmalion, Pygmalion leading

Pygmalion, Pygmalion leading, 144

rabbits, 31

Raby, Caroline, 217

raccoons, 37

racism, 123

rats, 53,
57
, 266

brains of, 220–21

domesticating, 55

learning experiment on, 56–58, 270

memory in, 163, 211

in Morris Water Maze, 35

uncertainty response of, 230

ravens, 147–48, 183–84, 200–201, 259–60

Reagan, Ronald, 112

reciprocity, 175, 186

reconciliation, 26, 174, 175

referential signaling, 107–8

Reinette (chimpanzee), 130–31

reinforcement, 31

Reiss, Diana, 16, 243

representational mental strategy, 86–87

research:

alternative theories in, 266

on ape-child comparisons, 141–46,
145
, 151, 152–53, 187, 192

cherry-picking the data in, 153

in cognition, 13, 34, 45–48, 59, 163, 265, 269–70, 272–73

conspecific approach in, 152, 153–54, 156

controlled experiments, 174

critical distance maintained in, 61

ethics in, 36

expectations in, 157

fieldwork alone, 173–74, 180, 254

fieldwork and captive combined, 174–75

generalizability of, 163

human-controlled vs. natural behavior in, 36–37

hunger reduction model, 35–36

impossibility of proving a negative, 140–41, 143, 157–58

keeping in the background, 156

matching to sample (MTS), 19, 96–97, 260

methodology in, 129, 143, 152, 192, 219

pair-wise testing, 192

proof-in-the-pudding experiment, 192–93, 194

in psychology lab, 142

quality of life issues in, 59

species-appropriate, 15, 17, 18, 37, 50, 60, 269

testing under duress, 35

on theory of mind, 146–47

variation in outcome in, 129

on wild and semiwild creatures, 114, 254

respect, 35

rewards, 207, 256, 257

rhesus monkeys:

conformism in, 256, 257–58

haptic (touch) discrimination of, 34

and mirror tests, 242

social relationships of, 183

Rico (border collie), 48

Rio (sea lion), 183

ripple effects, 69–70, 75–76, 93, 94, 108, 136, 320

Rita (chimpanzee), 194

Roah (raven), 259–60, 263

Roberta (capuchin monkey), 86

Romanes, George, 41

rooks, 176, 186

Rowena (ape), 49–50

Sacks, Oliver, 112

Sadie (chimpanzee), 54

saltationist view, 43

Santino (chimpanzee), 215

Sanz, Crickette, 79

Saturday Night Live,
126

Savage-Rumbaugh, Sue, 110–11

scala naturae,
12, 13, 22, 157, 321

Schaik, Carel van, 220

Schusterman, Ronald, 181–82

scientists:

arrogance of, 50–53, 66, 127

bias toward human exceptionalism, 22, 141, 153, 157, 187–88, 192, 206, 241, 268

crossover scholars, 58–59

resentments among, 73

rivalries among, 92

semantics as distraction to, 55

skepticism of, 3–4, 5–6, 41, 43, 55, 76–77, 103, 109, 265–66

slayers, 266–67

sea lions, 183

SEALs, 116

sea otters, 88

selective imitation,
see
imitation, selective

self-awareness, 48–50, 240–43, 321–22

self-control, 226–29

self-fulfilling prophecy, 144, 146

self-recognition, 11, 243–44

Sheba (chimpanzee), 228–29

Sheehan, Michael, 73

sheep, face recognition in, 72

Sherman (chimpanzee), 228

Shettleworth, Sara, 58–59, 232, 265

siamangs, 177

signature whistles, 322,
see also
dolphins, signature whistles of; dolphins, individual recognition by

Skinner, B. F., 27, 36, 37, 49,
50
, 59

Skinner box, 35, 117, 266

Skinnerian behaviorism, 66

Slocombe, Katie, 180

Smith, Adam, 132

Smith, David, 230

snow monkeys, 87

social brain hypothesis, 176, 322

social hierarchies, 167–77, 181, 183–84, 219, 221–22

social learning, 155, 256, 258

social networks, 176

social perceptions, research on, 68

social problem, solution to, 67

social skills, 165–74, 185, 218

“allegiance fickleness,” 173

coalition formation, 167, 171, 178–79

conformism, 256

deal making, 171–72, 175

reciprocity, 175, 186

research topics in, 176

triadic awareness, 171, 175, 177–85

Sociobiology
(Wilson), 187

Socko (chimpanzee), 146, 207–8

species, variation between, 53, 200, 270

spiders, 252

spoon test, 213

squirrels, 12, 216

Stalin, Joseph, 95

status reversals, 202

Steward (chimpanzee), 213

sticklebacks, 29–30, 38

stimulus equivalence, 181–83

stimulus-response, 42, 154

Stoffel (honey badger), 89

stress, as testing tool, 35

Stuttard, Susan, 21

subjectivism, 44

submission, 202

Suchak, Malini, 193

Sultan (chimpanzee), 63–64, 65, 68, 76

Suma (orangutan), 245,
245

sushi masters, 258–59

swallows, barn, 23

sweet potato washing, 51–53,
52

Systema Natura
(Linnaeus), 126

Taï National Park, Ivory Coast, 191, 210

targeted helping, 133–34,
133
, 241, 322

Tartt, Donna,
The Goldfinch,
89

Taylor, Alex, 93

teamwork, 190–91

Terrace, Herbert, 99, 109

theory of mind, 126, 130–32, 134, 138, 146–48, 322

theriomorphic, 39

Think Elephants International, 18, 235

thinking:

abstract thought, 5

before acting, 84

and language, 101

use of term, 65

Thorndike, Edward, 20, 21

thumb, opposable, 14

Tibbetts, Elizabeth, 73

tick, eyeless, 7–8

tickling, 25

Tietê Ecological Park, Brazil, 82

tigers, Tasmanian, 75

time, 205–34

delayed gratification, 224–26, 229

and displacement activities, 226–29

and expectation, 207

and future planning, 212–21, 229

and intentionality, 222

long-range future orientation, 205

and memory, 205, 207–12, 229

and metacognition, 229–33

Timmermans, Paul, 33

Tinbergen, Niko, 39, 56, 61–62

on animal cognition, 62

and ethology, 29–30, 38, 40–41, 43–44

Four Whys of, 44

Tinklepaugh, Otto, 207

Tolman, Edward, 206–7, 230, 232, 265

Tomasello, Michael, 187, 192

toolkits, 78–79, 87, 217

tool use:

by alligators, 94

by apes, 76, 81, 126–27

of body appendages, 88, 94

in captive species, 176

by capuchin monkeys, 82–86,
85

by chimpanzees, 14, 63–64,
64
, 77–80,
77
, 81, 82, 84, 127, 257

by crocodiles, 94

by crows, 89–90,
90
, 91, 93, 270, 274

definition of, 78

by elephants, 15,
16

and fabrication, 76–87,
77

by gorillas, 81–82

hunting weapons, 80

by macaques, 87–88

by an octopus, 94

by orangutans, 81

by sea otters, 88

triadic awareness, 171, 175, 177–85, 322

trial-and-error learning, 21, 31, 66, 68, 84

triok, long-fingered, 75

true imitation,
see
imitation, true

Tulving, Endel, 211, 213, 215, 217, 233

Twain, Mark, 13

Uexküll, Jakob von, 7–9, 13, 28, 275

ultrasound, 10

Umwelt
(worldview), 7–13, 15, 61, 237, 267, 271, 322

uncertainty response, 230–31,
231

unconditioned responses, 21

uniqueness claims, 126, 128, 158, 192