Are We Smart Enough to Know How Smart Animals Are? (49 page)

ethologists, 9, 27, 39, 43, 45

ethology:

attacks on, 56

and behaviorism, 36–37, 41, 44

cognitive, 26–27, 157, 266

and comparative psychology, 58, 61

defined, 29, 320

and displacement activities, 37

and evolutionary cognition, 55, 60, 271–72

and fixed action patterns, 37

and innate releasers, 37

and instincts, 37

and morphology, 39

and spontaneous behavior, 37–38

study of species-typical characteristics, 37

evolution, 122–29

adaptation in, 58

behavioral, 45

and cognition, 58–59

common ancestor in, 161

continuing, 160–61

convergent, 75, 109, 274

early intimations of, 125

of Hominoids, 87, 122, 160–61

homology vs. analogy in,
74
, 75, 83, 274

of language, 109

missing link in, 160–61

myths about, 83

and natural selection, 23, 122–23

and Neo-Creationism, 122

evolutionary cognition, 21–22,
50
, 61, 265–75, 320

comparative approach in, 200–201

and ethology, 55, 60, 271–72

learning theory, 271

The Mentality of Apes
(Köhler), 65

scope of, 28, 158, 176–77

and time dimension,
see
time

and variation between species, 53, 200, 270

Evolution of Culture, The
(White), 151

exceptionalism, 125–26

extraterrestrial civilizations, search for, 141

face recognition, 70–72

in apes and monkeys, 260, 274

in capuchin monkeys, 70–71, 129

in chimpanzees, 18–19, 70, 75, 260–61

in crows, 71–72

inversion effect in, 70

in sheep, 72

in wasps,
70
, 72–73, 75, 274

facial expressions, human, 40

false-belief task, 148

fashion, use of term, 154–55

Figaro (Goffin’s cockatoo), 103

fish, 25

cooperation between, 198–200,
198

discus, 74, 75

and mirror image, 242

shapes of, 75

fission-fusion society, 262

fixed action patterns, 37

Flo (chimpanzee), 170

Foerder, Preston, 16

Fons (chimpanzee), 1

fox, 8

FoxP2 gene, 109

Franje (chimpanzee), 1, 2, 3, 213

Frankfurt, Harry, 223–24

Freud, Sigmund, 151

Frisch, Karl von, 11, 61

frontal lobes, 124

fruit flies, 162

function, 44, 320

interpretation of, 108

vs. mechanism, 73–74, 158

future planning, 212–21, 229

Galileo Galilei, 113

Gallup, Gordon, 48–49, 50, 240, 241, 265

Ganzheitsbetrachtung
(holistic contemplation), 19–21, 61

Garcia, John, 57–58, 59, 270

Garcia Effect, 58, 320

Gardner, Allan, 144

Georgia (chimpanzee), 111, 130–31, 154

ghost box test, 159

gibbons, 13–15

as arboreal, 14–15

hands of, 14–15,
14
, 157

tool use skills lacked by, 81

Gingrich, Newt, 169

Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 125

goldfinches, 89

Goldfinch, The
(Tartt), 89

Gombe Stream, 221

Goodall, Jane, 68, 78, 264

In the Shadow of Man,
169–70

goodbye, saying, 2–3

gorillas:

in Hominoid family, 80–81

in mirror test, 240

tool use by, 81–82

goslings, 37,
40

Goualougo Triangle, Republic of Congo, 79

Grande (chimpanzee),
64
, 65

Grandin, Temple, 101

greeting, 2, 21, 25, 26

Greg (colleague), 115–16, 117

Griffin (parrot), 104, 225, 226

Griffin, Donald, 28, 104, 265

and cognitive ethology, 26–27, 157, 266

on consciousness, 23

on echolocation, 10, 11, 22

The Question of Animal Awareness,
22, 169

Guapo (capuchin monkey), 180

gulls, 37, 38

Gumert, Michael, 87–88

Hall, Katie, 130–31

Hampton, Robert, 230, 232–33

hands:

evolution of,
74

opposable thumbs, 75

of primates, 14–15,
14
, 157

Hanlon, Roger, 250, 252

Happy (elephant), 18

Hare, Brian, 138

Harlow, Harry, 35

Harris’s hawks, 191

Hattori, Yuko, 135

Hauser, Marc, 121

headflagging, 179–80

hedgehogs, 75

Heisenberg, Werner, 7, 15

hello, saying, 2

hippocampus, 220–21

HIV-1 virus, 161

Hobbes, Thomas, 168

hominization, 122

Hominoid family, 80–81, 87, 120, 125, 127, 160–61, 241, 243

Homo faber,
78

homology,
74
, 75, 83, 117, 221, 274, 321

honey badgers, 88–89

honeybees, 107

waggle dance of, 11

Hopkins, Bill, 137

Hopper, Lydia, 159

Horner, Victoria, 152–53, 156, 252

horses, 189

hostility, redirected, 181

Huffman, Michael, 154

human behavior:

displacement activity, 226–27

evolutionary approach to, 187

human children:

apes compared with, 141–46,
145
, 151, 152–53, 187, 192

delayed gratification in, 224, 225–26, 227

empathic perspective taking, 135–36

generosity of, 256

self-awareness of, 242, 243

human cognition, and animal cognition, 5, 121, 157, 268

human exceptionalism, 124–29, 152

anthropocentralism, 162

and continuity, 221

moratorium on, 158–59, 163

scientists’ bias toward, 22, 141, 153, 157, 187–88, 192, 206, 241, 268

human hands,
14

human immunity, 161

human mind, and Wallace’s Problem, 122–23

human soul, 123

Hume, David, 268–69

Hume’s Touchstone, 269, 321

hunger reduction model, 35–36

hunter-gatherers, 274

hunters, teamwork among, 190, 191, 199–200

Hussein, Saddam, 203

hyenas, 186

iceberg metaphor, 125, 128, 132

ichthyosaurs (extinct marine reptiles), 75

IgNobel prize, 261

Imanishi, Kinji, 51, 60, 61, 258, 263–64, 275

imitation, 151–56

of body movements, 159

and conformist bias, 253, 255

conspecific, 152–54, 156

and culture, 151–52, 175

definition, 151

overimitation, 153, 321

redefining, to prove a biased theory, 152–53

selective, 153, 161, 321

survival value of, 255–56

true, 126, 151, 153, 322

without rewards, 154

Imo (macaque), 51–53

Infant Chimpanzee and Human Child
(N. Kohts), 96

inferential reasoning, 54–55, 321

information seeking, 231–33,
231

infrasound, 238

inhibitions, 222–23

Inman, Alastair, 232–33

innate, definitions of, 40, 56

innate releasers, 37

In Search of Lost Time
(Proust), 209–10, 212

insects, wings of,
74
, 75

insight, 64–65,
64
, 67, 68, 89, 91, 321

instincts, 37, 271

use of term, 56

intelligence, 321

generalized, 68, 88

and language, 110–11

use of term, 11

intelligence testing, 128

Intelligent Design, 122

intentionality, 68, 78, 222

intentional signaling, 137–38

In the Shadow of Man
(Goodall), 169–70

introspection, 44

Itani, Junichiro, 60

Ivory Coast, 83

jackdaws, 8–9, 37, 39, 71, 98

Jakie (chimpanzee), 134

James, William, 226–27

Janik, Vincent, 263

Janmaat, Karline, 210

Japanese primatology, 51, 60–61

jays, 136, 146–47,
147
, 211, 217–18

Jigokudani Monkey Park, Japan, 87

joint intentionality, 190–91,
190
, 192,
194

Joni (chimpanzee), 96, 97

Kafka, Franz,
Metamorphosis,
7, 13

Kalunde (chimpanzee), 172, 173

Kandula (elephant), 16–17,
16

Kanzi (bonobo), 109, 110–11, 113, 227

Katie (chimpanzee), 154

Kennedy, John F., 56

Khrushchev, Nikita, 56

killjoy account, 51, 321

King, Stephanie, 263

kissing, 24–25,
24
, 26, 171

Kitcher, Philip, 223

kittiwakes, 31–32, 270

know-thy-animal rule, 53, 77, 321

Köhler, Wolfgang:

on animal cognition, 63,
64
, 271

chimpanzee research of, 63–66,
64
, 67, 68, 73, 76, 96, 154

and evolutionary cognition, 65

on future planning, 217

influence of, 113, 265, 271

The Mentality of Apes,
65

Kohts, Alexander Fiodorovich, 95–96

Kohts, Nadia, 95–98,
97
, 103, 113, 265

Infant Chimpanzee and Human Child,
96

matching-to-sample research of, 96–97, 260

Kohts, Roody, 96

Koko (gorilla), 105–6, 109

Köpfchengeben
(head giving), 21

Kortlandt, Adriaan, 226

Koshima Island, 51–53

Koyama, Nicola, 219

Krom (chimpanzee), 134

Kuif (chimpanzee), 3

Kummer, Hans, 59, 60, 169, 175, 265

Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste, 96

language:

acquisition of, 99–102

and animal cognition, 100–104, 113–14

body language, 131–32

capacities underlying, 107–8

capacity for, 112–13

evolution of, 109

flexibility of, 106

and intelligence, 110–11

labeling of objects, 99

local dialects, 258

and memory, 212

and referential signaling, 107

roles of, 107–8

survival value of, 107

and theory of mind, 131–32

in thinking process, 101

Language Research Center, Atlanta, 227

laughter, 25

“law of effect,” 20–21,
20

Leah (gorilla), 81–82

Leakey, Louis, 78, 127

learning:

associative, 27, 200, 255, 266

BIOL, 155, 259

biologically prepared, 58, 113, 271, 319, 320

and cognition, 69, 271

equivalence, 183

evolutionary forces in, 59

inborn specializations, 32–33

role of, 69

social, 155, 256, 258

social traditions, 51–53,
77
, 78–79

species-appropriate, 32

as tool, 69

trial-and-error, 21, 31, 66, 68, 84

vocal, 109

learning mechanism, 151

learning theory, 57–58, 271

Leavens, David, 137

Lehrman, Daniel, 55–56

Lethmate, Jürgen, 245

Lincoln Park Zoo, Chicago, 195

Linguistic Society of Paris, 109

Linnaeus, Carl,
Systema Natura,
126

lions, 191

Lisala (bonobo), 213–15,
214
, 217, 232

Living Links, 161

Liza (chimpanzee), 91–92

Loch Ness Monster, 141

Locke, John, 158

logic, 54–55

Lola ya Bonobo sanctuary, 213

Lolita (chimpanzee), 148–49

long-range future orientation, 205

Lorenz, Konrad, 6, 44, 275

and behavioral evolution, 40

and ethology, 38

on
Ganzheitsbetrachtung,
19–20, 21, 61

jackdaws studied by, 37, 71, 259

Nobel Prize to, 61

as public lecturer, 38–39

Roah (raven) communicating with, 259–60, 263

waterfowl studies of, 27, 28, 37, 39,
40

Lovitz, Jon, 126

Lysenko, Trofim, 95–96

Maasai, 238–39

macaques:

conformism in, 256

hands of,
14

imitation by, 154

lab for, 59

memory task for, 230–31,
231

and perspective taking, 138

social relationships of, 177, 181

sweet potato washing by, 51–53,
52

tool use by, 87–88

macaw, 97,
97

Machiavelli, Niccolò,
The Prince,
168, 176, 200

Madame Bee (chimpanzee), 68

magic well, 11, 13, 22, 106, 250, 321

magpies, 244

Malcolm, Norman, 101

male superiority, 127

Mama (chimpanzee), 67, 68, 165, 166, 184–85

Man the Toolmaker
(Oakley), 76

Marino, Lori, 243

Marks, Jonathan, 268

marmosets, brain studies of, 115

Martin, Chris, 161–62

Martin-Ordas, Gema, 208–9

Marzluff, John, 71–72

Mason, William, 87

Massen, Jorg, 200–201

matching-to-sample paradigm, 321,
see also
matching-to-sample (MTS) research

matching-to-sample (MTS) research, 19, 96–97, 260

mates, search for, 32

Mather, Jennifer, 249

Matsuzawa, Tetsuro, 80, 128, 259

Mayr, Ernst, 4

McComb, Karen, 238

mechanism vs. function, 73–74

memory:

autobiographical, 209–10

of birds, 211

of chimpanzees, 119–20,
120
, 121, 207–10

and cognitive research, 163

of dolphins, 263

episodic, 207–12, 229

and human amnesics, 233

and language, 212

of monkeys, 205, 229, 230–31

of orangutans, 209

of rats, 163, 211

Mentality of Apes, The
(Köhler), 65

mental time travel, 221, 321

Menzel, Charles, 138–40, 227

Menzel, Emil, 66–67, 138, 267

chimpanzee studies of, 67, 68, 169, 188