Chinese Comfort Women (39 page)

7
Senda,
Jūgun ianfu
, 73-74. The former Japanese soldiers’ testimonies cited in Nishino Rumiko’s
Jūgun ianfu: Moto heishi tachi no shōgen
[Military comfort women: Testimonies of former soldiers] (Tokyo: Akashi Shoten, 1992), 34 and 42-60, attest to the same fact.

8
Yoshimi,
Jūgun ianfu
, 22.

9
Chen Lifei,
Rijun weianfu zhidu pipan
[A critical analysis of the Japanese military comfort women system] (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 2006), 202.

10
Dagong bao
, 27 February 1938.

11
Jiang Hao,
Zhaoshi: Zhongguo weianfu – kuaguo kuashidai diaocha baipishu
[Exposé: Chinese comfort women – An investigation across the boundaries of nations and times] (Xining: Qinghai renmin chubanshe, 1998), 172-88.

12
This estimated figure is used in Chinese, Japanese, and Western sources. See, for example, Zhang Xianwen, chief compiler,
Zhongguo kang-Ri zhanzheng shi
[A history of China’s resistance war against Japan] (Nanjing: Nanjing daxue chubanshe, 2001), 25 and 1263-64; and “Second Sino-Japanese War,”
New World Encyclopedia
, available at
http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/
(viewed 11 July 2010). Hata Ikuhiko also indicates that Japan had 1,980,000 military personnel in China and the pacific region in December 1941 and that this number had reached 3,240,000 by the end of the war (the majority of these were in China). See Hata Ikuhiko,
Ianfu to senjō no sei
[Comfort women and sex in the battlefield] (Tokyo: Shinchōsha, 1999), 401. In assessing the total number of women victimized by the Japanese military comfort stations, Korean and Japanese scholars have estimated the total number of Japanese soldiers at roughly 3,000,000.

13
Yoshimi,
Jūgun ianfu
, 78-81.

14
Senda,
Jūgun ianfu
, 119-20. Yuki Tanaka arrives at a slightly different figure of 800,000 as the number of soldiers involved during the Guangdong Army Special Manoeuvre. See Yuku Tanaka,
Japan’s Comfort Women: Sexual Slavery and Prostitution during World War II and the US Occupation
(New York: Routledge, 2002), 18.

15
Yoshimi Yoshiaki, comp.,
Jūgun ianfu shiryōshū
[A collection of documents on military comfort women] (Tokyo: Ōtsuki Shoten, 1992), 83.

16
Kim Il-myon,
Tennō no guntai to Chōsenjin ianfu
[The emperor’s forces and the Korean comfort women] (Tokyō: Sanichi shobō, 1976), 50.

17
Hata,
Ianfu to senjō no sei
, 405.

18
Yoshimi,
Jūgun ianfu shiryōshū
, 83.

19
Su Zhiliang,
Weianfu yanjiu
[A study of the comfort women] (Shanghai: Shanghai shudian chubanshe, 1999), 277-79.

20
Li Xiuping,
Shiwan weianfu
[One hundred thousand comfort women] (Beijing: Renmin Zhongguo chubanshe, 1993), 6-7.

21
Su,
Weianfu yanjiu
, 278.

22
Wen Yan, “Anhui Rijun ‘weiansuo,’” in Li Bingxin, Xu Junyuan, and Shi Yuxin, eds.
Qin-Hua Rijun baoxing zonglu
[Collection of investigative records of the atrocities committed by the Japanese forces during Japan’s invasion of China] (Shijiazhuang: Hebei renmin chubanshe, 1995), 742-43.

23
Fu Heji, “Qin-Qiong Rijun ‘weianfu’ shilu,” in
Taotian zuinie: Erzhan shiqi de Rijun weianfu zhidu
[Monstrous atrocities: The Japanese military comfort women system during the Second World War], ed. Su Zhiliang, Rong Weimu, and Chen Lifei (Shanghai: Xuelin chubanshe, 2000), 194-95.

24
For Philippine comfort women’s experiences, see, for example, Maria Rosa Henson’s memoir,
Comfort oman: A Filipina’s story of prostitution and slavery under the Japanese military
(Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 1999).

25
Mrs. Andrew Levinge’s testimony, submitted to the International Tribunal for the Far East, Ex. 1590, 5089B. Published in Yoshimi Yoshiaki (editor-in-chief), Utsumi Aiko, Udagawa Kōta, Takahashi Shigehito, and Tsuchino Mizuho, eds.
Tōkyō saiban: Seibōryoku kankei shiryō
[Tokyo trial: Documents regarding sexual violence]. (Tokyo: Gendai shiryō shuppan, 2011), 183-86.

26
Wu Liansheng (narrator), Lin Liangcai, Liang Chuntian, and Fu Heji (recorders), “Chuguan beige hongyan xuelei: Rijun Nada weiansuo qindu ji” [Tragic stories of the suffering women: The Japanese military Nada comfort station I witnessed], in
Tietixiade xingfeng xueyu: Rijun qin-Qiong baoxing shilu, Xu
[Sequel to Bloody crimes of the occupation rule: Records of the atrocities committed by the Japanese military in Hainan], ed. Fu Heji, 272-79 (Hainan: Hainan chubanshe, 1995). Hereafter Fu,
TXXX
.

27
Li Qin, “Xin faxian de Rijun qiangzheng Tianjin funü chongdang ‘weianfu’ shiliao xi” [An analysis of the newly discovered historical documents relating to the Japanese military forcing Tianjin women to be “comfort women”], in Su et al.,
Taotian zuinie
, 639.

28
Ibid.

29
“Jin Ji Lu Yu bianqu banian kang-Ri zhanzheng zhong renmin zaoshou sunshi diaocha tongji biao” [Statistics based on the investigations of civilian damages during the eight-year resistance war against Japanese forces at the Jin Ji Lu Yu border region] (January 1946), preserved in Hebei Province Archives, Quanzong-hao 576, Mulu-hao 1, Anjuan-hao 31, Jian-hao 3, cited in He Tianyi, “Lun Rijun zai Zhongguo Huabei de xingbaoli” [The Japanese military’s sexual violence in northern China], in Su et al.,
Taotian zuinie
, 255.

30
“Diren zai Huabei de baoxing,” in Central Archives of China (Zhongyang Danganguan), Document 190, published in Zhongyang Danganguan, Zhongguo Dier Lishi Danganguan, Hebeisheng Shehui Kexueyang, comp., and Tian Susu, ed.,
Riben qinlüe Huabei zuixing dangan 9, Xingbaoli
[Documented war crimes during Japan’s invasion of north China, volume 9, Sexual violence] (Shijiazhuang: Hebei renmin shubanshe, 2005), 154-58. Hereafter Zhongyang et al.,
RQHZD
.

31
Quanzong-hao 91, Mulu-hao 1, Juan-hao 6, Jian-hao 1, cited in He, “Lun Rijun zai Zhongguo Huabei de xingbaoli,” in Su et al.,
Taotian zuinie
, 260-62.

32
Ibid.

33
He Tianyi, “Lun Rijun zai Zhongguo Huabei de xingbaoli,” in Su et al.,
Taotian zuinie
, 262. See also, Xie Zhonghou, Tian Susu, and He Tianyi, eds.,
Riben qinlüe Huabei zuixing shigao
[A history of atrocities: Japan’s invasion of northern China] (Beijing: Shehui kexue wenxian chubanshe, 2005), 424. Hereafter Xie et al.
RQHZS
.

34
Yoshimi,
Jūgun ianfu
, 113-15.

35
Yamada Sadamu,
Kempei nikki
[A military policeman’s diary] (Tokyo: Surugadai shobō, 1985), 273-76. This and other documented evidence have been cited in Yoshimi,
Jūgun ianfu
, 113-15.

36
The Central Archives of China, Document 119-2-988-1-10, published in Zhongyang et al.,
RQHZD
, 2-3.

37
Suzuki Hiraku’s confession, kept in the Central Archives of China, Document 119-2-1-1-4, published in Zhongyang et al.,
RQHZD
.

38
Chen,
Rijun weianfu zhidu pipan
, 199.

39
He, “Lun Rijun zai Zhongguo Huabei de xingbaoli,” in Su et al.,
Taotian zuinie
, 260-61.

40
The weights and measures have been converted to those familiar to Western readers. In the document the last of the benefits is written as
mo
(ink), which may have been a misprint of
mei
(coal), for which the pronunciation is similar.

41
“Wenshui hanjian ‘Tongling’ qiangzheng jinü” [The collaborators in Wenshui County ordered to draft prostitutes by force], in
Wenxian
5 (February 1939): 57, cited in Su Zhiliang,
Rijun xingnuli
[Japanese military sex slaves] (Beijing: Renming chubanshe, 2000), 87.

42
Xie et al.,
RQHZS
, 397-404.

43
Mizobe Kazuto, ed.,
Dokusan ni: Mōhitotsu no sensō
[The 2nd Independent Mountain Artillery Regiment: Another war] (Yamaguchi: Privately published, 1983), 58, cited in Yoshimi,
Jūgun ianfu
, 116-17. Cf. O’Brien’s translation in Yoshimi,
Comfort Women
, 120.

44
Mizobe,
Dokusan ni
, 55.

45
Hu Jiaren (narrator), Zhuo Shichun and Chen Yunhong (recorders), “Fuli-miao Rijun he ziweituan de judian qingkuang jiqi baoxing” [The strongholds of the Japanese military and self-guard league at Fuli-miao and their atrocities], in Fu,
TXXX
, 308-9.

46
The original text seems to contain a misprint in this sentence.
“Suijing”
should be “
xüjing,”
judging from the context.

47
Wang Bizhen, “Weiansuo li de nütongbao” [Women in the comfort station],
Guangxi funü
17-18 (1941): 36.

48
Collaboration in occupied China is a complicated issue, and its study has just begun. In his in-depth analysis of the subject, Timothy Brook follows Henrik Dethlefsen in defining collaboration as “the continuing exercise of power under the pressure produced by the presence of an occupying power.” See Henrik Dethlefsen, “Denmark and the German Occupation: Cooperation, Negotiation, or Collaboration?”
Scandinavian Journal of History
15, 3 (1990): 193-206. Cited in Timothy Brook,
Collaboration: Japanese Agents and Local Elites in Wartime China
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005), 2.

49
Shao Minghuang, “Taiwan in Wartime,” in MacKinnon et al.,
China at War
, 101.

50
He Shili, “Sanbai ‘weianfu’ cansi taiban: Shilu tiekuang ‘weiansuo’ diaocha shikuang” [Over half of the three hundred “comfort women” died: An investigative record of the Shilu iron mine “comfort station”], in
Tietixiade xingfeng xueyu: Rijun qin-Qiong baoxing shilu
[Bloody crimes of the occupation rule: Records of the atrocities committed by the Japanese military in Hainan], comp. Fu Heji (Hainan: Hainan chubanshe, 1995), 748-50. Hereafter Fu,
TXX
.

51
Fu Heji, “Qin-Qiong Rijun ‘weianfu’ shilu” [The reality of the Japanese military “comfort women” in Hainan], in Su et al.,
Taotian zuinie
, 191-96.

52
Shenbao
(Hong Kong edition), 6 March 1938.

53
Beijing Archives Bureau (Beijingshi dang’anguan), “Rijun qiangzheng ‘weianfu’ shiliao yijian” [A historical document on the Japanese military’s forcible drafting of “comfort women”], in Su et al.,
Taotian zuinie
, 623-26. The article includes Zhou Qian’s as well as a victim’s written testimony as submitted to the court. For more information about the Japanese military’s forcing prostitutes in Tianjin to be comfort women, see Lin Boyao, “Tianjin Rijun ‘weianfu’ zhi gongji xitong” [The Japanese military “comfort women” procurement system in Tianjin.], in Su et al.,
Taotian zuinie
, 269-307.

54
The Eighth Route Army was one of the two major Chinese Communist forces during the War of Resistance from 1937 to 1945.

55
Taguchi Shinkichi, “Chūgoku Kahokushō no rikugun jūgun ianfu” [The army’s comfort women in Hebei Province of China], in
Shōgen “jūgun ianfu”: Daiyaru 110 ban no kiroku
[Military comfort women: Records of the dial-in testimonies], ed. Nitchō kyōkai Saitama-ken rengōkai (Urawa: Nitchō kyōkai Saitama-ken rengōkai, 1995), 45.

56
See, for example, Jiang Hao,
Zhaoshi: Zhongguo weianfu – kuaguo kuashidai diaocha baipishu
[Exposé: Chinese comfort women – An investigation across the boundaries of nations and times] (Xining: Qinghai renmin chubanshe, 1998), 53-97.

57
See, for example, the murder of pregnant comfort woman Li Yaqian, reported by Lin Pagong and recorded by Zhang Yingyong, “Rijun ‘Zhandi houqin fuwudui’ zhong de Lizu funü” [The Li ethnic women drafted into the Japanese military “Battlefield rear service team”], in Fu,
TXX
, 547-49.

58
Hora Tomio,
Nankin daigyakusatsu
[Nanjing massacre] (Tokyo: Gendaishi shuppankai, 1982), 72.

59
In the 1930s and 1940s, local Chinese people often used the traditional lunar calendar, although the Gregorian calendar had been adopted by the newly formed Republic of China in 1912 for official business and was officially adopted in 1929 after the Nationalist government reconstituted the Republic of China. According to the lunar calendar, each year has twelve regular months and every second or third year has an intercalary month. Each month has twenty-nine or thirty days.

60
Fu, “Qin-Qiong Rijun ‘weianfu’ shilu,” in Su et al.,
Taotian zuinie
, 198.