Chinese Comfort Women (42 page)

2
Pan Xian’e, “Rijun qin-Ling shishi gaiyao” [An outline of the history of the Japanese military invasion of Lingshui County],
Tietixiade xingfeng xueyu: Rijun qin-Qiong baoxing shilu
[Bloody crimes of the occupation rule: Records of the atrocities committed by the Japanese military in Hainan], comp. Fu Heji (Hainan: Hainan chubanshe, 1995), 448-62. Hereafter Fu,
TXX
. Also, information from investigative notes of Su Zhiliang and Chen Lifei.

3
According to Chinese tradition, a person is considered one year old at birth and a year is added to one’s age each Lunar New Year. Therefore, by Western reckoning, Huang Youliang was actually only fourteen years old at the time.

4
The majority of China’s population is composed of Han people.

5
Yang Jiechen, “Rijun qinzhan Yaxian jiqi baoxing jishi” [Historical records of the Japanese military occupation of Ya County and the atrocities they committed], in Fu,
TXX
, 401-13.

6
van de Ven and Drea, “Chronology of the Sino-Japanese War,” in Peattie et al.,
Battle for China
, 20.

7
Zhang Yingyong, “Rijun ruqin Baoting-xian shimo” [A history of Japanese army’s invasion of Baoting County], in Fu,
TXX
, 531-41; Wang Shizhong, Li Zhaochang, and Ji Xuehai, Ji Xuexin (narrators), Zhang Yingyong (recorder), “Rijun zai Nanlin-xiang de zuixing shilu” [A record of the atrocities committed by the Japanese military in Nanlin Township], in Fu,
TXX
, 538-50.

8
Lin Yajin had trouble figuring out the years of some important events in her life according to the Western calendar. Based on her narration, her wedding should have taken place in the late 1940s.

9
“Eating from the same big pot” (
chi da guo fan
) was an extremist practice in China during the failed industrialization campaign known as the “Great Leap Forward” (
dayuejin
) initiated by CCP leader Mao Zedong between 1958 and early 1960. The campaign encouraged rural communities to take unrealistic initiatives, such as the communization of agriculture and the construction of backyard steel furnaces. By the middle of 1958, communes had been created in the countryside and peasants’ belongings, even the pigs and fruit trees in their courtyards, had been made communal property. “Eating from the same big pot” became a synonym for the to-each-according-to-his-needs institutions created at the time. The failure of the campaign and a poor harvest in 1959 resulted in mass starvation.

10
In the people’s commune system, “work-points” (
gongfen
) were used to measure a member’s work. The annual payment of grain to a commune member was based on the number of work-points she or he had earned. Because Lin’s husband was labelled as a counter-revolutionary, she was also subjected to persecution and was given fewer points for her work than she deserved.

11
Hagiwara Mitsuru, “The Japanese Air Campaigns in China, 1937-1945,” in Peattie et al.,
Battle for China
, 250. See also, Asano Toyomi, “Japanese Operations in Yunnan and North Burma,” in Peattie et al.,
Battle for China
, 361-85.

12
Chen Zuliang, “Qin-Hua Rijun Dianxi weiansuo yu ‘weianfu’” [The Japanese military comfort stations and “comfort women” in western Yunnan], in
Taotian zuinie: Erzhan shiqi de Rijun weianfu zhidu
[Monstrous atrocities: The Japanese military comfort women system during the Second World War], ed. Su Zhiliang, Rong Weimu, and Chen Lifei, 308-22 (Shanghai: Xuelin chubanshe, 2000).

13
The east side of the river was under the control of the Chinese Expeditionary Army at the time.

Chapter 8: Wounds That Do Not Heal

1
Yuki Tanaka,
Japan’s Comfort Women: Sexual Slavery and Prostitution during World War II and the US Occupation
(New York: Routledge, 2002), 86.

2
On 17 April 2007, Hayashi Hirofumi, Yoshimi Yoshiaki, and a group of historians announced in Tokyo the discovery of seven official interrogation records and statements documenting how the Japanese military coerced women to work at some of their frontline brothels in Indonesia, China, East Timor, and Vietnam. These documents were presented to the International Military Tribunal for the Far East. See Reiji Yoshida, “Evidence Documenting
Sex-Slave Coercion Revealed,”
Japan Times
, 18 April 2007. See also, Yuma Totani,
The Tokyo War Crimes Trial: The Pursuit of Justice in the Wake of World War II
(Cambridge: Harvard University Asia Center, 2008), 176-79, 181-82, and 185-86.

3
Totani,
Tokyo War Crimes Trial
, 185.

4
Tokyo Judgment
, 1:392-93, cited in Totani,
Tokyo War Crimes Trial
, 185.

5
Totani,
Tokyo War Crimes Trial
, 185.

6
Tanaka,
Japan’s Comfort Women
, 87.

7
John Dower,
Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War II
(New York: W.W. Norton, 1999), 469.

8
Ibid.

9
Dower,
Embracing Defeat
, 632.

10
Ibid., 443-49.

11
Yoshimi Yoshiaki,
Jūgun ianfu
[Military comfort women] (Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 1995), 175-92. See also Tanaka,
Japan’s Comfort Women
, 86; and C. Sarah Soh,
The Comfort Women: Sexual Violence and Postcolonial Memory in Korea and Japan
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008), 22.

12
Tanaka,
Japan’s Comfort Women
, 86. See also Toshiyuki Tanaka, “Naze Beigun wa jūgun ianfu mondai o mushishita no ka” [Why the US forces ignored the military comfort women issue?”],
Sekai
627 (1996): 174-83, and 628 (1996): 270-79.

13
Tanaka,
Japan’s Comfort Women
, 87.

14
George Hicks,
The Comfort Women: Japan’s Brutal Regime of Enforced Prostitution in the Second World War
(New York: W.W. Norton, 1995), 167; Tanaka,
Japan’s Comfort Women
, 110-32.

15
Hicks,
Comfort Women
, 158-62; Tanaka,
Japan’s Comfort Women
, 133-66.

16
Takemae Eiji,
The Allied Occupation of Japan
, trans. Robert Ricketts and Sebastian Swann (New York: Continuum, 2002), 67-71.

17
Yomiuri Shimbun
, 3 September 1945, morning edition.

18
Totani,
Tokyo War Crimes Trial
, 185-89.

19
Ibid., 151.

20
Ibid., 152-55.

21
Nicola Henry,
War and Rape: Law, Memory and Justice
(New York: Routledge, 2011), 40.

22
Ibid., 28-60.

23
Pilip R. Piccigallo,
The Japanese on Trial: Allied War Crimes Operations in the East, 1945-1951
(Austin: University of Texas Press, 1979), 158-73.

24
Ishida Yoneko and Uchida Tomoyuki,
Kōdo no mura no seibōryoku: Dā’nyan tachi no sensō wa owaranai
[Sexual violence in the villages located in the area of the yellow earth: The war is not over to these aged women] (Tokyo: Sōdosha, 2004), 225-28.

25
Ibid.

26
Ibid.

27
Ibid., 377.

28
Ibid., 363.

29
Ibid., 49-56.

30
The pension is based on the work Wang Gaihe did as a Resistance Movement member before she was captured by the Japanese army; it is not compensation for her forced sexual slavery as a comfort woman.

31
Ishida and Uchida,
Kōdo no mura no seibōryoku
, 114-17.

32
Ibid. 76-79.

33
Su Zhiliang and Chen Lifei’s investigative notes.

34
Chen Lifei,
Rijun weianfu zhidu pipan
[A critical analysis of the Japanese military comfort women system] (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 2006), 325-26.

35
Ibid.

36
Ibid., 398-99. Also, Su Zhiliang and Chen Lifei, interview notes.

37
Han Wenning and Feng Chunlong.
Riben zhanfan shenpan
[Trials of the Japanese war criminals] (Nanjing: Nanjing Chubanshe, 2005), 91.

38
For a more detailed discussion of the investigation, see Ishida and Uchida,
Kōdo no mura no seibōryoku
, 225-28.

Chapter 9: The Redress Movement

1
Senda Kakō,
Jūgun ianfu
[Military comfort women] (Tokyo: Kōdansha, 1984); and Kim Il-myon,
Tennō no guntai to Chōsenjin ianfu
[The emperor’s forces and the Korean comfort women] (Tokyō: Sanichi shobō, 1976).

2
For detailed information about the contents and circumstances of the publications, see Sarah Soh,
The Comfort Women: Sexual Violence and Postcolonial Memory in Korea and Japan
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008), 146-48.

3
For example, Yoshida Seiji,
Chōsenjin ianfu to Nihonjin: Moto Shimonoseki rōhō dōin buchō no shuki
[Korean comfort women and Japanese people: Memoir of the former mobilization department head] (Tokyo: Shinjinbutsu ōraisha, 1977); and Yamada Seikichi,
Bukan heitan: Shina hakkengun ian kakarichō no shuki
[The Wuhan commissariat: Memoir of the department head of the China detachment army comfort facilities] (Tokyo: Tosho shuppansha, 1978). Since 1992, Yoshida’s book has been discredited by some historians. See Soh,
Comfort Women
, 152-55.

4
Research has been published in English on the activities of the Korean and Japanese women’s groups. See, for example, Keith Howard, ed.,
True Stories of the Korean Comfort Women
(London: Cassell, 1995), v-viii; Watanabe Kazuko, “Militarism, Colonialism, and the Trafficking of Women: ‘Comfort Women’ Forced into Sexual Labour for Japanese Soldiers,”
Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars
26, 4 (1994): 3-17; George Hicks,
The Comfort Women: Japan’s Brutal Regime of Enforced Prostitution in the Second World War
(New York: W.W. Norton, 1994), 195-219; and Alice Yun Chai, “Korean Feminist and Human Rights Politics: The
Chongshindae/Jugunianfu
(‘Comfort Women’) Movement,” in
Korean American Women: From Tradition to Modern Feminism
, ed. Young I. Song and Ailee Moon (Westport: Praeger, 1998), 237-54.

5
Bonnie B.C. Oh, “The Japanese Imperial System and the Korean ‘Comfort Women,” in
Legacies of the Comfort Women of World War II
, ed. Margaret Stetz and Bonnie B.C. Oh, 3-25 (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2001), 14.

6
The investigative report can be found in Josei no tame no Ajia heiwa kokumin kikin, comp.,
Seifu chōsa “jūgun ianfu” kankei shiryō shūsei
[Governmental investigations: Documents concerning the military “comfort women”] (Tokyo: Ryūkei Shosha, 1999), 1:7-10. See also “Statement by Chief Cabinet Secretary Kato Regarding the So-Called Problem of Korean Comfort Women,” Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Japan, 6 July 1992. Available at
http://www.mofa.go.jp/
(viewed on 15 October, 2010).

7
Hicks,
Comfort Women
, 220-28.

8
Ibid.

9
Researchers such as Yoshimi Yoshiaki and women activists in both Korea and Japan were particularly critical.

10
Asahi Shimbun
, 4 August 1993. The report can be viewed at Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Japan, “Iwayuru jūgun ianfu mondai ni tsuite” [On the so-called “comfort women” issue], 4 August 1993.
http://www.mofa.go.jp/
(viewed 15 October 2010).

11
Yoshimi Yoshiaki,
Jūgun ianfu
[Military comfort women] (Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 1995), 6-8. A discussion of the Kōno statement and its criticism can be found in Yoshiko Nozaki, “Feminism, Nationalism, and the Japanese Textbook Controversy over ‘Comfort Women,’”
in
Feminism and Antiracism: International Struggle for Justice
, ed. France Winddance Twine and Kathleen M. Blee, 173-74 (New York: New York University Press, 2001).

12
See Norma Field, “War and Apology: Japan, Asia, the Fiftieth, and After,”
positions
5, 1 (1997): 1-51.

13
Philip A. Seaton,
Japan’s Contested War Memories
(London: Routledge, 2007), 95.

14
See the AWF website at
http://www.awf.or.jp/
(viewed 3 March, 2013). Japan’s minister of foreign affairs estimated the total donations to be about 600 million yen. See
http://www.mofa.go.jp/
.

15
Nozaki, “Feminism, Nationalism, and the Japanese Textbook Controversy,” 175.

16
The Allied Occupation of Japan
, 557.