Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (117 page)
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Cartailhac , Édouard Philippe Émile
(1843–1921)
[Bi].
(1843–1921)
[Bi].
French archaeologist and one of the founders of the tradition of prehistoric archaeology in his home country. Born in Marseilles he was educated in law and the natural sciences, soon discovering that the latter, and archaeology in particular, was his real interest. For twenty years he was editor of the journal
Matériaux pour l'histoire primitive et naturelle de l'homme
, founded by
MORTILLET
, and he wrote many books on French and Mediterranean prehistory. Although initially unconvinced of the antiquity of French and Spanish cave art, he changed his mind after visiting
ALTAMIRA
in the company of the Abbé
BREUIL
and subsequently did much to shift public opinion towards an acceptance of these works as Palaeolithic in date.
[Obit.:
Antiquaries Journal
, 2 (1922), 269]
Matériaux pour l'histoire primitive et naturelle de l'homme
, founded by
MORTILLET
, and he wrote many books on French and Mediterranean prehistory. Although initially unconvinced of the antiquity of French and Spanish cave art, he changed his mind after visiting
ALTAMIRA
in the company of the Abbé
BREUIL
and subsequently did much to shift public opinion towards an acceptance of these works as Palaeolithic in date.
[Obit.:
Antiquaries Journal
, 2 (1922), 269]
cart burial
[MC].
[MC].
Carter , Howard
(1873–1939)
[Bi].
(1873–1939)
[Bi].
British archaeologist famous for his discovery of the tomb of Tutankhamen in Egypt. Born in Brompton, London, the last of eleven children, he spent his early years in Swaffam, Norfolk, although details of his schooling are uncertain. In 1891 he was offered employment at Didlington Hall, the country seat of William Amhurst Tyssen-Amherst , a well-known collector of Egyptian antiquities. It was this introduction to archaeology that set the course of the rest of Carter's life. From the early 1890s he was working as a draughtsman and copyist for Percy Newberry who was carrying out an archaeological survey of Egypt. In September 1891 he joined Newberry in Egypt and later went on to work with Sir Flinders Petrie at Amarna.
Through the mid 1890s Carter developed great proficiency as an excavator and site manager, as well as an illustrator and photographer. On 1 January 1900 he took up an appointment as chief inspector of antiquities in Upper Egypt and Nubia with an office in Luxor. His role was to safeguard the antiquities of the region and supervise all archaeological work carried out there. This he did efficiently, changing roles in 1904 to look after the monuments in Lower Egypt. Things here did not go so smoothly and after badly handling a tussle between some French tourists and Egyptian guards, and various brushes with officialdom, he resigned in 1905.
Over the next few years he supported himself as an artist and illustrator. In 1909, however, Carter joined Lord Carnarvon's expedition at Thebes, the pair working in the Theban necropolis and elsewhere down to WW1. During the war Carter worked as a civilian in the intelligence department of the War Office in Cairo. After the war he continued working for Lord Carnarvon, but the political situation so far as archaeological investigations in Egypt were concerned was getting worse, permits were increasingly difficult to get, and Carnarvon grew increasingly disenchanted. In 1922 it was understood that the partners would make one last try to reveal something really worthwhile. Working in the Valley of the Kings, Carter began clearing the area in front of the tomb of Ramesses VI, and in early November 1922 he discovered the sealed entrance to the tomb of Tutankhamen . Clearing and recording the tomb took until February 1932, during which time there was a great deal of squabbling and intrigue, and the death of Lord Carnarvon from blood poisoning in April 1923. Carter never full published the excavations, nor was he ever fully accepted by the establishment of the time. His health deteriorated in the late 1930s and he died of Hodgkin's disease.
[Bio.: T. G. H. James , 1992,
Howard Carter. The path to Tutankhamen
. London: Kegan Paul]
Through the mid 1890s Carter developed great proficiency as an excavator and site manager, as well as an illustrator and photographer. On 1 January 1900 he took up an appointment as chief inspector of antiquities in Upper Egypt and Nubia with an office in Luxor. His role was to safeguard the antiquities of the region and supervise all archaeological work carried out there. This he did efficiently, changing roles in 1904 to look after the monuments in Lower Egypt. Things here did not go so smoothly and after badly handling a tussle between some French tourists and Egyptian guards, and various brushes with officialdom, he resigned in 1905.
Over the next few years he supported himself as an artist and illustrator. In 1909, however, Carter joined Lord Carnarvon's expedition at Thebes, the pair working in the Theban necropolis and elsewhere down to WW1. During the war Carter worked as a civilian in the intelligence department of the War Office in Cairo. After the war he continued working for Lord Carnarvon, but the political situation so far as archaeological investigations in Egypt were concerned was getting worse, permits were increasingly difficult to get, and Carnarvon grew increasingly disenchanted. In 1922 it was understood that the partners would make one last try to reveal something really worthwhile. Working in the Valley of the Kings, Carter began clearing the area in front of the tomb of Ramesses VI, and in early November 1922 he discovered the sealed entrance to the tomb of Tutankhamen . Clearing and recording the tomb took until February 1932, during which time there was a great deal of squabbling and intrigue, and the death of Lord Carnarvon from blood poisoning in April 1923. Carter never full published the excavations, nor was he ever fully accepted by the establishment of the time. His health deteriorated in the late 1930s and he died of Hodgkin's disease.
[Bio.: T. G. H. James , 1992,
Howard Carter. The path to Tutankhamen
. London: Kegan Paul]
Cartesian dualism
[Th].
[Th].
One of the foundations of western analytical thought is the separation of subject from object, the Cartesian separation of the world, an idea that can be traced back to the French philosopher and mathematician René Descartes (ad 1596–1650). The implications for archaeology include an essential dualism between mind and body and between people and things.
Carthage, Tunisia
[Si].
[Si].
Ancient city and seaport on the coast of Tunisia northwest of modern Tunis. The site has been the subject of many extensive campaigns of investigation, most notably the UNESCO ‘Save Carthage’ campaign under the aegis of the Tunisian Institut National d'Archéologie et d'Art and the Conservateur du site de Carthage between 1972 and about 1980, which involved collaboration by archaeological teams from twelve countries. It is believed that the city was founded in 814 bc as a colony of the
PHOENICIAN
city of Tyre, but no archaeological remains have yet been found earlier than the later 8th century
bc
. There is no doubt, however, that the colony became very prosperous relatively quickly, overlooked the straits separating the eastern from the western Mediterranean and providing an ideal anchorage. When Tyre fell under the domination of Assyria, a Punic (western Phoenicians) trading empire was established based on the former Phoenician colonies in the western Mediterranean. From the 6th century
bc
wealth was generated by merchants acting as middlemen, trade monopolies over certain products, and access to the mineral wealth of southwestern Spain. The town itself expanded through the intensive exploitation of the rich agricultural land along the North African coast. The new empire was constantly at war with the Greeks and later the Romans. Three great Punic Wars raged in the 3rd and 2nd century
bc
. In 241 bc, at the end of the first Punic War, Carthage lost Scilly and Sardinia to Rome. From an enlarged domain that included southern Spain, however, the Carthaginian general Hannibal led his army across the Alps to attack Italy from the north in 218 bc. He was later recalled to Africa where he was defeated by Scipio Africanus at Zama in 202 bc. Carthage was finally destroyed by Roman forces under Scipio Aemilianus in 146 bc.
From 29 bc the city was rebuilt as a Roman colony (
colonia Iulia Concordia Karthago
) by Julius Caesar and his heir Octavius . The city again prospered and became a major trading port for grain and olive oil produced in North Africa. It eventually replaced Utica as the provincial capital of Roman North Africa, and by the 4th century
ad
was the second largest city in the western empire after Rome itself. In the 4th and early 5th centuries it was a major centre for the early Christian church as it was home to St Augustine. The
VANDALS
took Carthage in ad 439, retaining control until the
BYZANTINE
invasion of ad 533. Thereafter it became the capital of the Byzantine province of North Africa until the Arab conquest of ad 698.
[Sum.: S. Lancel , 1995,
Carthage: a history
. Oxford: Blackwell]
PHOENICIAN
city of Tyre, but no archaeological remains have yet been found earlier than the later 8th century
bc
. There is no doubt, however, that the colony became very prosperous relatively quickly, overlooked the straits separating the eastern from the western Mediterranean and providing an ideal anchorage. When Tyre fell under the domination of Assyria, a Punic (western Phoenicians) trading empire was established based on the former Phoenician colonies in the western Mediterranean. From the 6th century
bc
wealth was generated by merchants acting as middlemen, trade monopolies over certain products, and access to the mineral wealth of southwestern Spain. The town itself expanded through the intensive exploitation of the rich agricultural land along the North African coast. The new empire was constantly at war with the Greeks and later the Romans. Three great Punic Wars raged in the 3rd and 2nd century
bc
. In 241 bc, at the end of the first Punic War, Carthage lost Scilly and Sardinia to Rome. From an enlarged domain that included southern Spain, however, the Carthaginian general Hannibal led his army across the Alps to attack Italy from the north in 218 bc. He was later recalled to Africa where he was defeated by Scipio Africanus at Zama in 202 bc. Carthage was finally destroyed by Roman forces under Scipio Aemilianus in 146 bc.
From 29 bc the city was rebuilt as a Roman colony (
colonia Iulia Concordia Karthago
) by Julius Caesar and his heir Octavius . The city again prospered and became a major trading port for grain and olive oil produced in North Africa. It eventually replaced Utica as the provincial capital of Roman North Africa, and by the 4th century
ad
was the second largest city in the western empire after Rome itself. In the 4th and early 5th centuries it was a major centre for the early Christian church as it was home to St Augustine. The
VANDALS
took Carthage in ad 439, retaining control until the
BYZANTINE
invasion of ad 533. Thereafter it became the capital of the Byzantine province of North Africa until the Arab conquest of ad 698.
[Sum.: S. Lancel , 1995,
Carthage: a history
. Oxford: Blackwell]
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