Empires of the Atlantic World: Britain and Spain in America 1492-1830 (104 page)

132. Morgan, Roger Williams, pp. 65-79. For a general introduction to Calvinism in North America, see Menna Prestwich (ed.), International Calvinism, 1541-1715 (Oxford, 1985), ch. 9. For a subtle account of the changing interaction between ministers and laity, see Stephen Foster. The Long Argument. English Puritanism and the Shaping of New England Culture, 1570-1700 (Chapel Hill, NC, and London, 1991).

133. Paul Lucas, Valley of Discord. Church and Society along the Connecticut River, 1636-1725 (Hanover, NH, 1976), pp. 19-20.

134. David D. Hall, The Faithful Shepherd. A History of the New England Ministry in the Seventeenth Century (Chapel Hill, NC, 1972), p. 4.

135. Lucas, Valley of Discord, p. 31.

136. For Presbyterians and synods, in addition to Hall, The Faithful Shepherd, see Prestwich, International Calvinism, pp. 264-5 and 280-1.

137. Darrctt B. Rutman, Winthrop's Boston. Portrait of a Puritan Town, 1630-1649 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1965), pp. 146-7.

138. Morgan, Visible Saints, ch. 4; Hall, TheFaithful Shepherd, ch. 8; Foster, The Long Argument, ch. 5.

139. Lucas, Valley of Discord, pp. 25-6.

140. Prestwich, International Calvinism, pp. 280-1.

141. For Penn and early Pennsylvania, see especially Mary Maples Dunn, William Penn, Politics and Conscience (Princeton, 1967); Richard S. and Mary Maples Dunn (eds), The World of William Penn (Philadelphia, 1986); Nash, Quakers and Politics; Lemon, The Best Poor Man's Country; Tully, Forming American Politics. For a summary account of other holy experiments, see Bailyn, Peopling of North America, pp. 123-7, and his Atlantic History, pp. 76-81.

142. Dunn and Dunn, The World of William Penn, p. 37.

143. Nash, Quakers and Politics, pp. 13-14.

144. Richard S. and Mary Maples Dunn (eds), The Papers of William Penn (5 vols, Philadelphia, 1981-6), 2, pp. 414-15 (letter to Lord North, 24 July 1683); Lemon, The Best Poor Man's Country, p. 60.

145. For the causes of instability in early Pennsylvania, see Nash, Quakers and Politics, pp. 161-80.

146. Jon Butler, "`Gospel Order Improved": the Keithian Schism and the Exercise of Quaker Ministerial Authority in Pennsylvania', WMQ, 3rd ser., 31 (1974), pp. 431-52.

147. Marianne S. Wokeck, `Promoters and Passengers: the German Immigrant Trade, 1683-1775', in Dunn and Dunn, The World of William Penn, pp. 259-78.

148. Ronald Hoffman, Princes of Ireland, Planters of Maryland. A Carroll Saga, 1500-1782 (Chapel Hill, NC and London, 2000), pp. 81 and 94; Bonomi, Under the Cope of Heaven, p. 36.

149. Jon Butler, Becoming America. The Revolution before 1776 (Cambridge, MA and London, 2000), pp. 26-7. For the Jewish diaspora in the New World, see Bernardini and Fiering (eds), The Jews and the Expansion of Europe, and the relevant essays in Jonathan Israel, Diasporas within a Diaspora. Jews, Crypto-Jews and the World Maritime Empires, 1540-1740 (Leiden, Boston, Cologne, 2002).

150. Seymour B. Liebman, The Jews in New Spain (Coral Gables, FL, 1970), p. 46.

151. Efren de la Madre de Dios and O. Steggink, Tiempo y vida de Santa Teresa (Madrid, 1968), pp. 36-40; Valentin de Pedro, America en las letras espanolas del siglo de oro (Buenos Aires, 1954), ch. 18.

152. Vila Vilar, Hispano-america y el comercio de esclavos, pp. 94 and 99-103; and see above, p. 100.

153. James C. Boyajian, Portuguese Bankers at the Court of Spain, 1626-1650 (New Brunswick, NJ, 1983), pp. 121-8; Israel, Race, Class and Politics, pp. 124-30; Liebman, The Jews in New Spain, pp. 259-66.

154. See Fischer, Albion's Seed, pp. 199-205 and 410-18.

155. For instability in the Middle Colonies, see in particular Nash, Quakers and Politics, and Tully, Forming American Politics. The historiography of the Middle Colonies was surveyed in 1979 by Greenberg, `The Middle Colonies in Recent American Historiography', and, more recently, by Wayne Bodle, `Themes and Directions in Middle Colonies Historiography, 1980-1994', WMQ, 3rd set., 51 (1994), pp. 355-88.

156. See Lucas, Valley of Discord.

157. Fischer, AlbionSeed, p. 334; Isaac, Transformation of Virginia, p. 65; Hall, Worlds of Wonder, p. 51.

158. Hall, Worlds of Wonder, pp. 23-4.

159. Wright, First Gentlemen of Virginia, p. 117.

160. Isaac, Transformation of Virginia, pp. 124-5.

161. Bailyn, Education in the Forming of American Society, pp. 27-8; and for biblical culture, schooling, and the availability of the book in New England, see Hugh Amory and David D. Hall (eds), The Colonial Book in the Atlantic World (Cambridge, 2000), ch. 4.

162. John Eliot to Sir Simonds D'Ewes, 18 September 1633, in Emerson, Letters from New England, p. 107.

163. Hall, Worlds of Wonder, pp. 34-5.

164. Bailyn, Education in the Forming of American Society, pp. 27-9.

165. Isaac, Transformation of Virginia, p. 122.

166. Kenneth A. Lockridge, Literacy in Colonial New England (New York, 1974), pp. 13-14.

167. Butler, Becoming America, p. 111.

168. Gonzalez-Sanchez, Los mundos del libro, p. 155, where it is suggested that 20 per cent of male settlers in the sixteenth century could read and write with ease.

169. Gurrin, `Shipwrecked Spaniards', pp. 26-7. See above, p. 144.

170. Cited by Verner W. Crane, The Southern Frontier 1670-1732 (Durham, NC, 1928; repr. New York, 1978), p. 3.

171. For the development of the English image of Spain, see J. N. Hillgarth, The Mirror of Spain, 1500-1799. The Formation of a Myth (Ann Arbor, MI, 2003), chs 10-12.

172. Colin Steele, English Interpreters of the Iberian New World from Purchas to Stevens, 1603-1726 (Oxford, 1975), p. 59; and see J. Eric S. Thompson's introduction to his edition of Gage, Travels in the New World.

173. Mayer, Dos americanos, p. 298, n. 116.

174. Gage, Travels, p. 51.

175. Cotton Mather, The Diary of Cotton Mather, 2 vols (Boston, 1911-12), 1, p. 206.

176. Mather, Diary, 1, pp. 284-5.

177. Ibid., 1, p. 420; and see also for the evangelizing hopes of Bostonian ministers and early contacts with the Spanish American world, Harry Bernstein, Origins of Inter-American Interest, 1700-1812 (Philadelphia, 1945), pp. 66-71.

1. Samuel Sewall, The Diary of Samuel Sewall, 1674-1729, ed. M. Halsey (2 vols, New York, 1973), 1, p. 380.

2. Slingsby Bethel, The Interest of Princes and States (London, 1680), preface (no page numbers).

3. A. P. Newton, The European Nations in the West Indies, 1493-1688 (London, 1933; repr., 1966), pp. 269-71.

4. Bethel, The Interest of Princes, p. 75.

5. Ibid., pp. 76-7.

6. Roger Coke, A Discourse of Trade (London, 1670), Part 1, p. 46. For Coke and other later seventeenth-century pamphleteers and economic theorists, see Joyce Oldham Appleby, Economic Thought and Ideology in Seventeenth-Century England (Princeton, 1978). In this, as in other accounts of British economic thought in the seventeenth century, more attention tends to be paid to the example of the Dutch than to the counter-example of Spain.

7. Sir Josiah Child, A New Discourse of Trade (London, 1693), pp. 164-5; and see Armitage, Ideological Origins of Empire, pp. 166-7. Child's ideas, first elaborated in the 1660s, found their final form in his New Discourse of 1693. See Joseph A. Schumpeter, History of Economic Analysis (1954; 6th printing, London, 1967), p. 195, n. 3.

8. For a recent summary of the growth of the colonial trade and its impact, see Nuala Zahedieh, `Overseas Expansion and Trade in the Seventeenth Century', OHBE, 1, ch. 18.

9. Above, p. 113.

10. For this eighteenth-century ideology, see especially Armitage, Ideological Origins of Empire, Linda Colley, Britons. Forging the Nation 1707-1837 (New Haven and London, 1992), and Peter N. Miller, Defining the Common Good. Empire, Religion and Philosophy in Eighteenth-Century Britain (Cambridge, 1994).

11. See especially Richard S. Dunn, `The Glorious Revolution and America', OHBE, 1, ch. 20, and J. M. Sosin, English America and the Revolution of 1688 (Lincoln, NE, and London, 1982).

12. As chronicled by Greene, The Quest for Power.

13. Dunn, `The Glorious Revolution', p. 463.

14. Johnson, Adjustment to Empire, pp. 229-30.

15. Sosin, English America and the Revolution of 1688, p. 231.

16. Thomas C. Barrow, Trade and Empire. The British Customs Service in Colonial America, 1660-1775 (Cambridge, MA, 1967), p. 74 and Appendix A. Also Alison Gilbert Olson, Making the Empire Work. London and American Interest Groups, 1690-1790 (Cambridge, Mass., 1992), p. 58, where the total number of English officials in the American colonies at the end of Queen Anne's reign is put at around 240.

17. Olson, Making the Empire Work, p. 61.

18. Ibid., p. 52; Steele, The English Atlantic, p. 92; and see also Hancock, Citizens of the World, for the accelerating integration of the British Atlantic economy in the eighteenth century.

19. For the improvement of transatlantic postal services and its impact, see Steele, The English Atlantic, chs 7-9.

20. Above, p. 193.

21. Cited by Johnson, Adjustment to Empire, p. 364.

22. Coke, A Discourse of Trade, part 1, p. 10.

23. Newton, European Nations in the West Indies, pp. 271-6.

24. Bernstein, Origins of Inter-American Interest, pp. 15-19.

25. Nuala Zahadieh, `The Merchants of Port Royal, Jamaica, and the Spanish Contraband Trade, 1655-1692', WMQ, 3rd set., 43 (1986), pp. 570-93; Curtis Putnam Nettels, The Money Supply of the American Colonies before 1720 (University of Wisconsin Studies in the Social Sciences and History, no. 20, Madison, WI, 1934), pp. 15-21; Fisher, Economic Aspects of Spanish Imperialism, pp. 81-2.

26. Lutgardo Garcia Fuentes, El comercio espanol con America, 1650-1700 (Seville, 1980), pp. 55-66; Antonio Garcia-Baquero, Cadiz y el Atlantico, 1717-1778 (2 vols, Seville, 1976), 1, p. 104.

27. For a recent account of the process, see Stanley J. Stein and Barbara H. Stein, Silver, Trade and War. Spain and America in the Making of Early Modern Europe (Baltimore and London, 2000), ch. 3.

28. William Lytle Schurz, The Manila Galleon (1939; repr. New York, 1959); El galeon de Acapulco (Exhibition catalogue, Museo National de Historia, Mexico City, 1988); Los galeones de la Plata (Exhibition catalogue, Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y las Artes, Mexico City, 1998).

29. For the participation of American merchants in the Atlantic trade, see Studnicki-Gizbert, `From Agents to Consulado', and Suarez, Comercio y fraude, and Desafios transatlanticos.

30. Above, p. 111.

31. Moutoukias, Contrabando y control colonial, p. 31.

32. For the seventeenth-century growth of inter-regional trade, see, in addition to the important study of the La Plata region by Moutoukias, Contrabando y control colonial, Fisher, Economic Aspects of Spanish Imperialism, pp. 65-71.

33. Woodrow Borah, New Spain's Century of Depression (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1951), is the classic exposition of depression in the seventeenth-century economy of New Spain. For a useful discussion of the `depression' thesis, see John J. TePaske and Herbert S. Klein, `The Seventeenth-Century Crisis in New Spain: Myth or Reality?', Past and Present, 90 (1981), pp. 116-35. The case for seeing the seventeenth century as a period of economic transition, rather than of depression, for the Spanish American economies, has been effectively argued by John Lynch, The Hispanic World in Crisis and Change, 1598-1700 (Oxford, 1992), ch. 8.

34. See Bakewell, Silver Mining and Society, especially ch. 9, for these trends, and suggested explanations for them.

35. Garner, `Long-Term Silver Mining Trends'; Kenneth J. Andrien, Crisis and Decline. The Viceroyalty of Peru in the Seventeenth Century (Albuquerque, NM, 1985), p. 200; Fisher, Economic Aspects of Spanish Imperialism, pp. 100-1.

36. TePaske and Klein, `The Seventeenth-Century Crisis', pp. 120-1.

37. On the basis of information provided by European flysheets and Dutch gazettes Morineau, Incroyables gazettes, has introduced major modifications into the figures for bullion imports into Spain given by Earl J. Hamilton in his American Treasure and the Price Revolution in Spain, 1501-1650 (Cambridge, MA, 1934) and War and Prices in Spain, 1651-1800 (Cambridge, MA, 1947). Morineau's figures have themselves subsequently been revised by Antonio Garcia-Baquero Gonzalez, `Las remesas de metales preciosos ameri- canes en el siglo XVIII: una aritmetica controvertida', Hispania, 192 (1996), pp. 203-66. See also Table 1 in Stein and Stein, Silver, Trade and War, p. 24, for the disparity between registered and unofficial receipts.

38. This argument is developed by Ruggiero Romano in his Conjonctures opposees.

39. Andrien, Crisis and Decline, ch. 5; Peter T. Bradley, Society, Economy and Defence in Seventeenth-Century Peru. The Administration of the Count Alba de Liste, 1655-61 (Liverpool, 1992), pp. 111-14.

40. Burkholder and Chandler, From Impotence to Authority, p. 23. For the general question of the sale of offices in Spanish America, see Parry, The Sale of Public Office.

41. For corruption and its impact in Spanish America, see Horst Pietschmann, El estado y su evolution al principio de la colonization espanola de America (Mexico City, 1989), pp. 163-82.

42. Carlos Martinez Shaw and Marina Alfonso Mola, Felipe V (Madrid, 2001), p. 206; John Lynch, Bourbon Spain, 1700-1808 (Oxford, 1989), pp. 52-4.

43. For the transition from a `horizontal' Habsburg Spain to a `vertical' Bourbon Spain, and a brief discussion of the character and extent of the changes introduced by Philip V, see Ricardo Garcia Carcel, Felipe V y los espanoles. Una vision periferica del problema de Espana (Barcelona, 2002), pp. 114-24.

44. Armitage, Ideological Origins, p. 149; and see, for the international context of the Union and the debate over the form it should take, John Robertson, `Union, State and Empire: the Union of 1707 in its European Setting', in Lawrence Stone (ed.), An Imperial State at War. Britain from 1689 to 1815 (London, 1994), pp. 224-57.