Empires of the Atlantic World: Britain and Spain in America 1492-1830 (99 page)

47. Meek, Exchange Media, p. 57.

48. Daviken Studnicki-Gizbert, `From Agents to Consulado: Commercial Networks in Colonial Mexico, 1520-1590 and Beyond', Anuario de Estudios Americanos, 57 (2000), pp. 41-68; Bakewell, History of Latin America, pp. 203-4.

49. Cespedes del Castillo, America hispanica, p. 128; Garner, `Long-Term Silver Mining Trends', p. 902.

50. For a succinct survey, summarizing much recent work, see Ward Barrett, `World Bullion Flows, 1450-1800', in James D. Tracy (ed.), The Rise of Merchant Empires. Long-Distance Trade in the Early Modern World, 1350-1750 (Cambridge, 1990), ch. 7.

51. Chaunu, L'Amerique et les Ameriques, p. 92; John R. Fisher, The Economic Aspects of Spanish Imperialism in America, 1492-1810 (Liverpool, 1997), p. 38.

52. Robert J. Ferry, The Colonial Elite of Early Caracas. Formation and Crisis, 1567-1767 (Berkeley Los Angeles, London, 1989), chs 1 and 2.

53. Gloria L. Main, Tobacco Colony. Life in Early Maryland 1650-1720 (Princeton, 1982), pp. 18-19.

54. Richard S. Dunn, Sugar and Slaves. The Rise of the Planter Class in the English West Indies, 1624-1713 (New York, 1972), p. 49; Andrews, The Colonial Period, vol. 2, ch. 7.

55. Watts, The West Indies, pp. 182-3; Dunn, Sugar and Slaves, pp. 59-67.

56. Watts, The West Indies, p. 230; Blackburn, Making of New World Slavery, p. 267.

57. Main, Tobacco Colony, pp. 239 and 254.

58. Cited from Bartolome de Las Casas by Hugh Thomas, Rivers of Gold, pp. 157-8. For a summary of the development of the crown's policy on Indian enslavement, see Konetzke, La epoca colonial, pp. 153-9. For a close study of policy and practice on Hispaniola, Carlos Esteban Deive, La Espanola en la esclavitud del indio (Santo Domingo, 1995).

59. Konetzke, Coleccion de documentos, 1, doc. 10.

60. For the requerimiento see above, p. 11.

61. Hanke, The Spanish Struggle for Justice, pp. 33-5.

62. O. Nigel Bolland, `Colonization and Slavery in Central America', in Paul E. Lovejoy and Nicholas Rogers (eds), Unfree Labour in the Development of the Atlantic World (Ilford, 1994), pp. 11-25.

63. Konetzke, Coleccion de documentos, 1, does 143 and 144.

64. Gutierrez, When Jesus Came, the Corn Mothers Went Away, pp. 150-1; and see below, p. 275.

65. Juan A. and Judith E. Villamarin, Indian Labor in Mainland Colonial Spanish America (Newark, DE, 1975), pp. 16-18.

66. The Conde de Nieva (1563), quoted in Bakewell, Miners of the Red Mountain, p. 56, n. 51.

67. For the mingas see Bakewell, Miners of the Red Mountain, especially ch. 4.

68. The literature on black slavery in the Americas is now enormous. Frank Tannenbaum's Slave and Citizen (1946) retains its importance as a pioneering comparative study of slavery in British and Spanish America. A comparative approach is also adopted by Herbert S. Klein, Slavery in the Americas. A Comparative Study of Virginia and Cuba (Chicago, 1967). Hugh Thomas, The Slave Trade. The History of the Atlantic Slave Trade 1440-1870 (New York and London, 1997) is a comprehensive synthesis, which pays due attention to the Iberian contribution, for which see also Enriqueta Vila Vilar, Hispano-America y el comercio de esclavos (Seville, 1977). For Mexico, see Colin A. Palmer, Slaves of the White God. Blacks in Mexico, 1570-1650 (Cambridge, MA and London, 1976), Herman L. Bennett, Africans in Colonial Mexico. Absolutism, Christianity, and Afro-Creole Consciousness, 1570-1640 (Bloomington, IN and Indianapolis, 2003). For Peru, Lockhart, Spanish Peru, ch. 10; Federick P. Bowser, The African Slave in Colonial Peru, 1524-1650 (Stanford, CA, 1974). For British America, most recently, Ira Berlin, Many Thousands Gone. The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America (Cambridge, MA, 1998). Valuable general studies covering the Atlantic world as a whole include, in addition to Robin Blackburn, The Making of New World Slavery (previously cited), Barbara L. Solow (ed.), Slavery and the Rise of the Atlantic System (Cambridge, 1991), and David Eltis, The Rise of African Slavery in the Americas (Cambridge, 2000).

69. Hayward Keniston, Francisco de Los Cobos. Secretary of the Emperor Charles V (Pittsburgh, PA, 1960), p. 64; Thomas, Rivers of Gold, pp. 361-3.

70. Lockhart, Spanish Peru, p. 171.

71. Bowser, The African Slave, p. 28.

72. Blackburn, The Making of New World Slavery, pp. 135 and 140.

73. For the figures, see David Eltis, `The Volume and Structure of the Transatlantic Slave Trade: a Reassessment', WMQ, 3rd set., 58 (2001), pp. 17-46, modifying the statistics given in Philip D. Curtin's standard work, The Atlantic Slave Trade. A Census (Madison, WI, 1969). For the Gomes Reinel contract, Vila Vilar, Hispano-America y el comercio de esclavos, pp. 23-8; Thomas, The Slave Trade, pp. 141-3.

74. Luiz Felipe de Alencastro, 0 trato dos viventes. Formacdo de Brasil no Atldntico Sul. Seculos XVI e XVII (Sao Paulo, 2000), ch. 3.

75. Vila Vilar, El comercio de esclavos, p. 209.

76. Carmen Bernand, Negros esclavos y libres en las ciudades hispanoamericanas (2nd edn, Madrid, 2001), p. 60.

77. William Alexander, An Encouragement to Colonies (London, 1624), p. 7.

78. For the importance of the African population in Spanish American cities, for long a neglected subject, Bernand, Negros esclavos y libres, and, for New Spain, Bennett, Africans in Colonial Mexico. For slaves as a percentage of city populations, Bernand, p. 11.

79. Bowser, The African Slave, ch. 6; Lockhart, Spanish Peru, pp. 182-4.

80. Bowser, The African Slave, pp. 272-3.

81. Thomas Gage's Travels in the New World, ed. J. Eric S. Thompson (Norman, OK, 1958), p. 73. This is a modernized edition of Thomas Gage, The English-American his Travail by Sea and Land (London, 1648).

82. Palmer, Slaves of the White God, p. 67.

83. Blackburn, Making of New World Slavery, p. 147; Lockhart and Schwartz, Early Latin America, p. 179.

84. Bakewell, Silver Mining and Society, p. 122.

85. Bowser, The African Slave, p. 13.

86. Ibid., chs. 3 and 6.

87. Vila Vilar, El comercio de esclavos, p. 228.

88. Bennett, Africans in Colonial Mexico, p. 19; Bowser, The African Slave, p. 75.

89. Main, Tobacco Colony, p. 100.

90. Craven, White, Red and Black, p. 73.

91. For South Carolina and its slave trade, see Alan Gallay, The Indian Slave Trade. The Rise of the English Empire in the American South, 1670-1717 (New Haven and London, 2002). Statistics on pp. 298-9 and 346.

92. Ibid., pp. 302-3; Margaret Ellen Newell, `The Changing Nature of Indian Slavery in New England, 1670-1720', in Colin G. Calloway and Neal Salisbury (eds), Reinterpreting New England Indians and the Colonial Experience (Boston, 2003), pp. 106-36; and, for a good general survey, Joyce E. Chaplin, `Enslavement of Indians in Early America. Captivity Without the Narrative', in Mancke and Shammas (eds), Creation of the British Atlantic World, pp. 45-70.

93. Oscar and Mary Handlin, `Origins of the Southern Labor System', WMQ, 3rd ser., 7 (1950), pp. 199-222, at p. 103. For the Vagrancy Act, C. S. L. Davies, `Slavery and Protector Somerset: the Vagrancy Act of 1547', Economic History Review, 2nd ser., 19 (1966), pp. 533-49.

94. See above, p. 55.

95. Dunn, Sugar and Slaves, p. 120.

96. Philip D. Morgan, 'British Encounters with Africans and African-Americans circa 1600-1780', in Bailyn and Morgan (eds.), Strangers within the Realm, pp. 169-70.

97. Kuppcrman, Providence Island, pp. 165-75.

98. Ibid., p. 177.

99. Alden T. Vaughan, `Blacks in Virginia: a Note on the First Decade', WMQ, 3rd ser., 29 (1972), pp. 469-78.

100. Philip D. Morgan, Slave Counterpoint. Black Culture in the Eighteenth-Century Chesapeake and Low Country (Chapel Hill, NC and London, 1998), p. 58; Morgan, 'British Encounters with Africans', p. 171; Kupperman, Providence Island, p. 176; Galenson, White Servitude, p. 153.

101. Dunn, Sugar and Slaves, pp. 71-3.

102. Ibid., pp. 75-6 and 224.

103. Blackburn, The Making of New World Slavery, p. 258.

104. See Richard R. Beeman, `Labor Forces and Race Relations: a Comparative View of the Colonization of Brazil and Virginia', Political Science Quarterly, 86 (1971), pp. 609-36.

105. Watts, The West Indies, pp. 123-6; Blackburn, The Making of New World Slavery, pp. 138-9; Kenneth R. Andrews, The Spanish Caribbean. Trade and Plunder 1530-1630 (New Haven and London, 1978), pp. 76-9.

106. Stuart B. Schwartz, Sugar Plantations in the Formation of Brazilian Society. Bahia, 1550-1835 (Cambridge, 1985), chs 2 and 3.

107. Watts, The West Indies, p. 183.

108. Blackburn, The Making of New World Slavery, p. 309; and above, p. 9.

109. Canup, Out of the Wilderness, p. 9.

110. Blair Worden, The Sound of Virtue (New Haven and London, 1996), p. 55.

111. Thomas, The Slave Trade, pp. 433-4.

112. Alonso de Sandoval, Un tratado sobre la esclavitud, ed. Enriqueta Vila Vilar (Madrid, 1987), pp. 236-7.

113. Lockhart and Schwartz, Early Latin America, p. 91.

114. Blackburn, The Making of New World Slavery, p. 139; Bowser, The African Slave, ch. 8.

115. Las Siete Partidas del Sabio Rey Don Alonso el nono (Salamanca, 1555), partida 3, tit. 5, ley iv. See also Palmer, Slaves of the White God, p. 86.

116. For laws and ordinances relating to slavery in Spanish America, see Manuel Lucena Salmoral, La esclavitud en la America espabola (Centro de Estudios Latinoamericanos, University of Warsaw, Estudios y materiales, 22, Warsaw, 2002).

117. See the numerous examples provided by Bennett in Africans in Colonial Mexico.

118. Palmer, Slaves of the White God, pp. 62-3.

119. David Brion Davis, The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture (London, 1970), pp. 290-1.

120. Magnus M6rner, Race Mixture in the History of Latin America (Boston, 1967), p. 117.

121. Davis, The Problem of Slavery, p. 297; Morgan, `British Encounters with Africans', pp. 167-8.

122. MBrner, Race Mixture, pp. 116-17; Palmer, Slaves of the White God, pp. 172-8.

123. Bennett, Africans in Colonial Mexico, p. 19.

124. Bernand, Negros esclavos y libres, p. 46.

125. Berlin, Many Thousands Gone, p. 96; Blackburn, The Making of New World Slavery, p. 258.

126. Pierre Chaunu, Conquete et exploitation des nouveaux mondes (Paris, 1969), p. 286.

127. Eastward Ho (1605), Act III, Scene 3, in The Plays and Poems of George Chapman. The Comedies, ed. Thomas Marc Parrott (London, 1914), p. 499; Chaunu, L'Amerique et Les Ameriques, p. 88, and map 6.

128. Antonio Garcia-Baquero Gonzalez, Andalucia y la carrera de Indias, 1492-1824 (Seville, 1986), p. 28.

129. Jose Maria Oliva Melgar, `Puerto y puerta de las Indias', in Carlos Martinez Shaw (ed.), Sevilla siglo XVI. El corazon de las riquezas del mundo (Madrid, 1993), p. 99.

130. For the Consulado, R. S. Smith, The Spanish Guild Merchant (Durham, NC, 1940), ch. 6; Guillermo Cespedes del Castillo, La averla en el comercio de Indias (Seville, 1945); Antonio-Miguel Bernal, La financiacion de la Carrera de Indias, 1492-1824 (Seville and Madrid, 1992), especially pp. 209-22; Enriqueta Vila Vilar, `El poder del Consulado y los hombres del comercio en el siglo XVII', in Enriqueta Vila Vilar and Allan J. Kuethe (eds), Relaciones del poder y comercio colonial. Nuevas perspectivas (Seville, 1999), pp. 3-34.

131. For the Portuguese, see above, p. 100; for the Genoese, Ruth Pike, Enterprise and Adventure. The Genoese in Seville and the Opening of the New World (Ithaca, NY11966); for Corsicans, Enriqueta Vila Vilar, Los Corzo y los Manara. Tipos y arquetipos del mercader con America (Seville, 1991); for the community of foreign merchants in Seville, Michele Moret, Aspects de la societe marchande de Seville an debut du XVIIe siecle (Paris, 1967), pp. 34-58; and for foreign participation in Spanish commercial life in general, Antonio Dominguez Ortiz, Los extranjeros en la vida espanola durante el siglo XVII y otros articulos (Seville, 1996).

132. Enriqueta Vila Vilar and Guillermo Lehmann Villena, Familia, linajes y negocios entre Sevilla y las Indias. Los Almonte (Madrid, 2003).

133. Studnicki-Gizbert, `From Agents to Consulado'; Margarita Suarez, Comercio y fraude en el Peru colonial. Las estrategias mercantiles de un banquero (Lima, 1995), and Desafios transatlanticos. Mercaderes, banqueros y el estado en el Peru virreinal, 1600-1700 (Lima, 2001).

134. Eduardo Arcila Farias, Comercio entre Venezuela y Mexico en los siglos XVII y XVIII (Mexico City, 1950), pp. 52-3.

135. Woodrow Borah, Early Colonial Trade and Navigation between Mexico and Peru (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1954). Inter-colonial trade in Spanish America needs further investigation. See Fisher, Economic Aspects of Spanish Imperialism, ch. 5.

136. Ian K. Steele, The English Atlantic, 1675-1740 (Oxford, 1986), pp. 78-9.

137. Cressy Coming Over, p. 156; Steele, English Atlantic, pp. 90-1 and 45.

138. Steele, English Atlantic, pp. 42-3.

139. Below, pp. 117-18.

140. Robert M. Bliss, Revolution and Empire. English Politics and the American Colonies in the Seventeenth Century (Manchester and New York, 1990), p. 20.

141. OHBE, 1, pp. 20-1.

142. R. W. Hinton, The Eastland Trade and the Common Weal in the Seventeenth Century (Cambridge, 1959), p. 95.

143. OHBE, 1, p. 423.

144. George Gardyner, A Description of the New World (London, 1651), pp. 7-8.

1. Cited in Bliss, Revolution and Empire, pp. 19-20, from Clarence S. Brigham (ed.), British Royal Proclamations Relating to America, 1603-1763 (American Antiquarian Society, Transactions and Collections, XII, Worcester, MA, 1911), pp. 52-5. See also Craven, Dissolution of the Virginia Company, p. 330, for the move to royal rule.