Empires of the Atlantic World: Britain and Spain in America 1492-1830 (95 page)

86. Francisco Lopez de Gemara, Primera parte de la historia general de las Indias (BAE, vol. 22, Madrid, 1852), p. 181. For Cortes and his philosophy of settlement, see Richard Konetzke, `Hernan Cortes como poblador de la Nueva Espana', Estudios Cortesianos (Madrid, 1948), pp. 341-81.

87. For Cortes's entrepreneurial activities, see France V. Scholes, `The Spanish Conqueror as a Business Man: a Chapter in the History of Fernando Cortes', New Mexico Quarterly, 28 (1958), pp. 5-29.

88. Murdo J. MacLeod, Spanish Central America. A Socioeconomic History, 1520-1720 (Berkeley, 1973), ch. 6.

89. Cited by J. H. Elliott, The Old World and the New, 1492-1650 (Cambridge, 1970; repr. 1992), p. 78, from Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo, Historia general y natural de las Indies (5 vols, BAE, vols 117-21, Madrid, 1959), 1, p. 110.

90. Gemara, Historia general, BAE, vol. 22, pp. 177 and 184. Gemara uses the word mejorar for improve. For the language of improvement in British America, see Nicholas Canny and Anthony Pagden (eds), Colonial Identity in the Atlantic World, 1500-1800 (Princeton, 1987), pp. 10-11, 228-9, and David Hancock, Citizens of the World. London Merchants and the Integration of the British Atlantic Community, 1735-1785 (Cambridge, 1995), pp. 281-2.

91. The Pedrarias Davila expedition of 1513 is another. See Maria del Carmen Mena Garcia, Pedrarias Davila o `la Ira de Dios'. Una historia olvidada (Seville, 1992), p. 32, for Ferdinand's close personal interest in the details of the expedition.

92. Cortes, Letters from Mexico, p. 48.

93. Roy Strong, Gloriana. The Portraits of Queen Elizabeth I (London, 1987), pp. 131-3. I am grateful to Professor David Armitage for drawing my attention to this reference.

94. e.g. by Edmund Spenser in his dedication of The Faerie Queene to Elizabeth as the `Magnificent Empresse Elizabeth by the Grace of God Queen of England Fraunce and Ireland and of Virginia'. David Armitage, The Ideological Origins of the British Empire (Cambridge, 2000), pp. 52-3, and see pp. 45-7 for the sixteenth-century emergence of an `Empire of Great Britain'.

95. Strachey, Travell into Virginia, p. 9.

96. David Quinn's pioneering work in finding connections between the colonization of Ireland NY11966), (Ithaca, has been followed up by Nicholas Canny, especially in his Kingdom and Colony. Irish the and Elizabethans The in instance for America, North and

97. Voyages of Gilbert, 1, p. 9.

98. Fora convenient summary of the arguments, see Kenneth R. Andrews, Trade, Plunder and Settlement. Maritime Enterprise and the Genesis of the British Empire, 1480-1630 (Cambridge, 1984), pp. 187-90.

99. For Norumbega, see Emerson W. Baker et al. (eds), American Beginnings. Exploration, Culture and Cartography in the Land of Norumbega (Lincoln, NE and London, 1994).

100. For Extremadura, see Ida Altman, Emigrants and Society. Extremadura and Spanish America in the Sixteenth Century (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London, 1989), ch. 6. For the West Country connection, Joyce Youings, `Raleigh's Country and the Sea', Proceedings of the British Academy, 75 (1989), pp. 267-90.

101. Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom, pp. 83-4.

102. Voyages of Gilbert, 1, p. 71.

103. See Juan Friede, Los Welser en la conquista de Venezuela (Caracas, 1961), for the failure of the Welsers, and Wesley Frank Craven, Dissolution of the Virginia Company. The Failure of a Colonial Experiment (New York, 1932), for that of the Virginia Company.

104. See John H. Elliott, Illusion and Disillusionment. Spain and the Indies (The Creighton Lecture for 1991, University of London, 1992).

105. Richard Helgerson, Forms of Nationhood. The Elizabethan Writing of England (Chicago and London, 1992), p. 168.

106. Taylor, Writings of the Two Hakluyts, 1, p. 143.

107. Ibid., 2, pp. 233-4.

108. Cited by Elliott, Illusion and Disillusionment, p. 14.

109. For an introduction to this debate, see Elliott, Spain and its World, ch. 11 ('Self-Perception and Decline in Early Seventeenth-Century Spain').

110. Cited from his Memorial de la politica necesaria y util restauracion a la republica de Espana (Valladolid, 1600), fo. 15v, in Elliott, Illusion and Disillusionment, pp. 12-13.

111. See Michel Cavillac, Gueux et marchands dans le `Guzman de Alfarache', 1599-1604 (Bordeaux, 1993), especially ch. 5, for insights into this struggle in Castile at the turn of the century.

112. See Carole Shammas, `English Commercial Development and American Colonization 1560-1620', in K. R. Andrews et al., The Westward Enterprise (Liverpool, 1978), ch. 8. Also Charles Wilson, Profit and Power (London, 1957), and Barry Supple, Commercial Crisis and Change in England, 1600-1642 (Cambridge, 1959).

113. Andrews, Trade, Plunder and Settlement, pp. 312-13.

114. Cited by Richard S. Dunn, Puritan and Yankee. The Winthrop Dynasty of New England, 1630-1717 (Princeton, 1962), p. 36.

1. William Burke, An Account of the European Settlements in America (6th edn., London, 1777), pp. 203-4. I am grateful to Dr Ian Harris of the University of Leicester for making available to me a copy of this book.

2. For a brilliant account by a modern geographer of the varieties of settlement of 'Atlantic America', see vol. 1 (Atlantic America, 1492-1800') of D. W. Meinig, The Shaping of America (New Haven and London, 1986).

3. Everett Emerson (ed.), Letters from New England. The Massachusetts Bay Colony, 1629-1638 (Amherst, MA, 1976), p. 21.

4. Smith, Works, 1, p. 143 (A Map of Virginia').

5. Jose de Acosta, Historia natural y moral de las Indias, ed. Edmundo O'Gorman (2nd edn, Mexico City and Buenos Aires, 1962), p. 127.

6. Thomas Gomez, L'Envers de l'Eldorado. Economie coloniale et travail indigene dans la Colombie du XVIeme siecle (Toulouse, 1984), p. 143.

7. The suggestive work of Patricia Seed, Ceremonies of Possession, and `Taking Possession and Reading Texts: Establishing the Authority of Overseas Empires', WMQ, 3rd set., 49 (1992), pp. 183-209, seems too keen to emphasize differences based on national stereotypes.

8. Above, p. 12; Pagden, Lords of All the World, p. 76.

9. Cited from Partida III, tit. 28, ley 29, by Morales Padron, `Descubrimiento y toma de posesion', p. 332.

10. Introduction by Eduardo Arcila Farias to Joseph del Campillo y Cosio, Nuevo sistema de gobierno economico Para la America (2nd edn, Merida, Venezuela, 1971), p. 50.

11. Pagden, Lords of All the World, pp. 91-2.

12. Cited by Morales Padron, `Descubrimiento y toma de posesion', p. 334.

13. Journal of the First Voyage, pp. 29 and 36.

14. Cristobal Colon, Textos y documentos completos, ed. Consuelo Varela (2nd edn, Madrid, 1992), p. 272.

15. Morales Padron, `Descubrimiento y toma de posesion', pp. 331 and 342. For Cortes, see above, p. 4.

16. Hakluyt, Navigations, 2, pp. 687 and 702; Seed, `Taking Possession', pp. 183-4.

17. Hakluyt, Navigations, 2, p. 677.

18. Gradie, `Spanish Jesuits in Virginia', p. 133.

19. Pagden, Lords of All the World, pp. 76-9; and above p. 12.

20. Hakluyt, Navigations, 2, p. 687.

21. D. B. Quinn and Alison M. Quinn (eds.), The New England Voyages 1602-1608 (Hakluyt Society 2nd set., vol. 161, London, 1983), p. 267.

22. Seed, `Taking Possession', pp. 190-1.

23. Carmen Val Julian, `Entre la realidad y el deseo. La toponomia del descubrimiento en Colon y Cortes', in Oscar Mazin Gomez (ed.), Mexico y el mundo hispanico (2 vols, Zamora, Michoacan, 2000), 1, pp. 265-79; Stephen Greenblatt, Marvelous Possessions. The Wonder of the New World (Chicago, 1991), pp. 82-3; and, for the wider context of Columbus's choice of names, Valerie I. J. Flint, The Imaginative Landscape of Christopher Columbus (Princeton, 1992).

24. Helen Nader (trans. and ed.), The Book of Privileges Issued to Christopher Columbus by King Fernando and Queen Isabel 1492-1502 (Repertorium Columbianum, 3, Berkeley, Los Angeles, Oxford, 1996), p. 99 (Letter of 16 August 1494).

25. Greenblatt, Marvelous Possessions, p. 82.

26. Barbara E. Mundy, The Mapping of New Spain (Chicago and London, 1996), p. 144.

27. Cortes, Letters from Mexico, p. 158. For naming practices by Cortes and other conquistadores, see Carmen Val Julian, `La toponomia conquistadora', Relaciones (El Colegio de Michoacan), 70 (1997), pp. 41-61.

28. Baker, American Beginnings, ch. 3.

29. Smith, Works, 1, p. 324; Quinn, New England Voyages, p. 3.

30. Smith, Works, 3, p. 278.

31. Smith, Works, 1, pp. 309 and 319.

32. George R. Stewart, Names on the Land. A Historical Account of Place-Naming in the United States (New York, 1945; repr. 1954), p. 64.

33. Ibid., p. 59.

34. Fernandez de Oviedo, Historia general y natural, 2, p. 334. See also Seed, Ceremonies of Possession, p. 175.

35. Iconoclastes, p. 1, cited by Alicia Mayer, Dos americanos, dos pensamientos. Carlos de Sigiienza y Gongora y Cotton Mather (Mexico City, 1998), p. 161.

36. Cited by Stewart, Names on the Land, p. 53.

37. See Geoffrey Parker, Empire, War and Faith in Early Modern Europe (London, 2002), ch. 4 ('Philip II, Maps and Power'), and, more generally, for Iberian cartography in this period, Ricardo Padr6n, The Spacious World. Cartography, Literature, and Empire (Chicago, 2004).

38. Mundy, The Mapping of New Spain; Richard L. Kagan, Urban Images of the Hispanic World, 1493-1793 (New Haven and London, 2000), ch. 3; Francisco de Solano (ed.), Cuestionarios Para la formation de las Relaciones Geogrdficas de Indias, siglos XVI/XIX (Madrid, 1988); Howard F. Cline, `The Relaciones Geogrdficas of the Spanish Indies, 1577-1586', HAHR, 44 (1964), pp. 341-74.

39. Quoted by I. K. Steele, Politics of Colonial Policy. The Board of Trade in Colonial Administration, 1696-1720 (Oxford, 1968), p. 154.

40. Benjamin Schmidt, `Mapping an Empire: Cartographic and Colonial Rivalry in Seventeenth-Century Dutch and English North America', WMQ, 3rd ser., 54 (1997), pp. 549-78.

41. Baker, American Beginnings, p. 304.

42. Vas Mingo, Las capitulaciones de Indias, pp. 81 and 196.

43. Hakluyt, Navigations, 2, p. 687.

44. Fricdc, Los Welser, pp. 135-46; and see above, p. 25.

45. Andrews, The Colonial Period, 2, p. 282.

46. William Cronon, Changes in the Land. Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England (New York, 1983), p. 69.

47. Gbmara, Cortes, p. 67.

48. William Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 1620-1647, ed. Samuel Eliot Morison (New York, 1952), p. 76; George D. Langdon Jr., `The Franchise and Political Democracy in Plymouth Colony', WMQ, 3rd ser., 20 (1963), pp. 513-26.

49. Bradford, Plymouth Plantation, p. 62.

50. Patricia U. Bonomi, A Factious People. Politics and Society in Colonial New York (New York and London, 1971), p. 22.

51. Kenneth A. Lockridge, A New England Town. The First Hundred Years. Dedham, Massachusetts, 1636-1736 (New York, 1970), p. 12.

52. Smith, Works, 3, p. 277.

53. William Wood, New England's Prospect, ed. Alden T. Vaughan (Amherst, MA, 1977), p. 68; and see Vickers, `Competency and Competition'.

54. Otte, Cartas privadas, pp. 169 (pasar mejor) and 113 (Francisco Palacio to Antonio de Robles, 10 June 1586). Translations of some of this correspondence can be found in James Lockhart and Enrique Otte (eds), Letters and People of the Spanish Indies. The Sixteenth Century (Cambridge, 1976).

55. See Pedro Corominas, El sentimiento de la riqueza en Castilla (Madrid, 1917).

56. Charles Gibson, The Aztecs under Spanish Rule (Stanford, CA, 1964), p. 406.

57. Richard Konetzke, America Latina. II. La epoca colonial (Madrid, 1971), p. 38.

58. Francisco de Solano, Ciudades hispanoamericanas y pueblos de indios (Madrid, 1990), p. 18.

59. Cortes, Letters from Mexico, pp. 102-3.

60. For Spanish urban traditions and their transfer to the New World, see in particular Richard M. Morse, 'A Prologomenon to Latin American Urban History', HAHR, 52 (1972), pp. 359-94, and `The Urban Development of Colonial Spanish America', CHLA, 2, ch. 3. Also Kagan, Urban Images of the Hispanic World, ch. 2, and Solano, Ciudades hispanoamericanas.

61. Martinez, Documentos cortesianos, 1, doc. 34, especially p. 281.

62. Gomara, Cortes, p. 10.

63. Konetzke, La epoca colonial, p. 41.

64. Above, p. 21.

65. Himmerich y Valencia, The Encomenderos of New Spain, p. 12.

66. Jose de la Puente Brunke, Encomienda y encomenderos en el Peru (Seville, 1992), p. 18.

67. Silvio Zavala, Ensayos sobre la colonization espanola en America (Buenos Aires, 1944), pp. 153-4; James Lockhart, Spanish Peru, 1532-1560 (Madison, WI, Milwaukee, WI, London, 1968), p. 12.

68. For the encomienda, the fundamental works remain Silvio Zavala, La encomienda mexicana (1935; 2nd edn, Mexico City, 1973), and Lesley Byrd Simpson, The Encomienda in New Spain (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1950).

69. Silvio Zavala, Estudios indianos (Mexico City, 1948), p. 298.

70. In England, on the other hand, the crown's rights to ownership of mineral deposits were transferable. For the different approaches in Castile and England to possession of the subsoil, see Patricia Seed, American Pentimento. The Invention of Indians and the Pursuit of Riches (Minneapolis and London, 2001), ch. 4. The failure of the British to discover precious metals in the territories under their control reduces the importance in the American context of any difference between English and Spanish practice in regard to mineral rights. For the development of mining in Spanish America through private enterprise, see below, p. 93.

71. Cronon, Changes in the Land, p. 130.

72. Campillo, Nuevo sistema, introduction, pp. 50-2.