Empires of the Atlantic World: Britain and Spain in America 1492-1830 (97 page)

10. Cortes, Letters from Mexico, p. 108.

11. Agustin de Zarate, The Discovery and Conquest of Peru, trans. and ed. J. M. Cohen (Harmondsworth, 1968), p. 54.

12. Elliott, The Old World and the New, pp. 41-50; Pagden, Fall of Natural Man, ch. 2.

13. Ralph Roys, The Indian Background of Colonial Yucatan (1943; repr. Norman, OK, 1972); Robert S. Chamberlain, The Conquest and Colonization of Yucatan, 1517-1550 (Washington, 1948); Nancy M. Farriss, Maya Society under Colonial Rule (Princeton, 1984).

14. Gomez, L'Envers de 1'Eldorado, pp. 56-61.

15. Juan de Cardenas, Problemas y secretos maravillosos de las Indias (facsimile of 1591 edition, Madrid, 1945), fo. 188.

16. Steele, Warpaths, p. 3.

17. Wilcomb E. Washburn, The Indian in America (New York, 1975), p. 46.

18. Smith, Works, 2, pp. 315-16.

19. For the superiority of European weaponry, see Alberto Mario Salas, Las armas de la conquista (Buenos Aires, 1950); John F. Guilmartin, `The Cutting Edge: an Analysis of the Spanish Invasion and Overthrow of the Inca Empire, 1532-1539', in Kenneth J. Andrien and Rolena Adorno (eds), Transatlantic Encounters. Europeans and Andeans in the Sixteenth Century (Berkeley, Los Angeles, Oxford, 1991), ch. 2; Geoffrey Parker, The Military Revolution (Cambridge, 1988), ch. 4. For a historiographical survey, Wayne E. Lee, `Early American Warfare: a New Reconnaissance, 1600-1815', Historical Journal, 44 (2001), pp. 269-89.

20. Lockhart, We People Here, p. 80.

21. Weber, The Spanish Frontier, ch. 1.

22. See Philip Wayne Powell, Soldiers, Indians and Silver. The Northwest Advance of New Spain, 1550-1600 (Berkeley, 1952).

23. Craven, `Indian Policy', p. 75.

24. Powell, Soldiers, p. 5.

25. Ibid., p. 134.

26. Ibid., pp. 186-7; Alvaro Jara, Guerre et societe an Chili. Essai de sociologic coloniale (Paris, 1961), p. 138; Sergio Villalobos R., `Tres siglos y medio de vida fronteriza chilena', in Solano and Bernabeu (eds.), Estudios sobre la frontera, pp. 289-359.

27. John Shy, A People Numerous and Armed (revised edn., Ann Arbor, 1990), ch. 2 (A New Look at the Colonial Militia'); T. H. Breen, `English Origins and New World Development: the Case of the Covenanted Militia in Seventeenth-Century Massachusetts', Past and Present, 57 (1972), pp. 74-96.

28. Shy, A People Numerous, p. 33.

29. Craven, White, Red and Black, pp. 55-8, 66-7; Gleach, Powhatan's World, pp. 176-83; Warren M. Billings, Sir William Berkeley and the Forging of Colonial Virginia (Baton Rouge, LA, 2004), pp. 96-9; Hatfield, Atlantic Virginia, pp. 24 and 34.

30. See Jill Lepore, The Name of War. King Philip's War and the Origins of American Identity (New York, 1998), for `King Philip's War' and its character.

31. Bradford, Plymouth Plantation, pp. 206-7.

32. Richard Konetzke, Coleccion de documentos Para la historia de la formation social de Hispanoamerica 1493-1810 (vol. 1, Madrid, 1953), dot. 7 (16 September 1501); Magnus MOrner, Race Mixture in the History of Latin America (Boston, 1967), p. 41.

33. Vaughan, New England Frontier, pp. 100-1; Axtell, Invasion Within, p. 148.

34. Jara, Guerre et societe, p. 63; Edward H. Spicer, Cycles of Conquest (Tucson, AZ, 1962), p. 243.

35. Adam J. Hirsch, `The Collision of Military Cultures in Seventeenth-Century New England', The Journal of American History, 74 (1988), pp. 1187-212; Vaughan, New England Frontier, pp. 153-4.

36. Powell, Soldiers, pp. 170-1; Shy, A People Numerous, p. 33; Vaughan, New England Frontier, p. 314.

37. For valuable guidance to a vast and polemical literature, see J. N. Biraben, `La Population de l'Amerique precolombienne. Essai sur les methodes', Conferencia Internationale. El poblamiento de las Americas, Vera Cruz, 18-23 May 1992 (Institut National d'Etudes Demographiques, Paris, 1992); John D. Daniels, `The Indian Population of North America in 1492', WMQ, 3rd set., 49 (1992), pp. 298-320; Linda A. Newson, `The Demographic Collapse of Native Peoples of the Americas, 1492-1650', in Bray (ed.), The Meeting of Two Worlds, pp. 247-88; Cook, Born to Die.

38. Cook, Born to Die, p. 206.

39. Alonso de Zorita, The Lords of New Spain, trans. and ed. Benjamin Keen (London, 1963), p. 202.

40. Bernardo Vargas Machuca, Refutation de Las Casas (edn, Paris, 1913), p. 173.

41. Zorita, Lords of New Spain, p. 212.

42. Gibson, The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule, p. 150; Inga Clendinnen, `Ways to the Sacred: Reconstructing "Religion" in Sixteenth-Century Mexico', History and Anthropology, S (1990), pp. 105-41; Washburn, The Indian in America, pp. 107-10.

43. See Table 3.2 (p. 132) of Cook, Born to Die.

44. Newson, `Demographic Collapse', pp. 254-62.

45. Steele, Warpaths, p. 37. For Velasco, see above, p. 10.

46. Jennings, The Invasion of America, p. 24; Cook, Born to Die, pp. 170-1; James H. Merrell, "`The Customs of Our Country". Indians and Colonists in Early America', in Bernard Bailyn and Philip D. Morgan (eds), Strangers Within the Realm. Cultural Margins of the First British Empire (Chapel Hill, NC and London, 1991), pp. 117-56, at p. 123; Daniel K. Richter, Facing East from Indian Country. A Native History of Early America (Cambridge, MA, and London, 2001), pp. 60-7.

47. Smith, Works, 3, pp. 293-4.

48. Emerson, Letters from New England, p. 116.

49. See above, p. 11.

50. cf. Axtell, The Invasion Within, p. 135.

51. Sebastian de Covarrubias, Tesoro de la lengua castellana o espanola (facsimile edn., ed. Martin de Riquer, Barcelona, 1987).

52. Luke 14: 23. Juan Gines de Sepulveda, Democrates segundo o de las juntas causas de la guerra contra los indios, ed. Angel Losada (Madrid, 1951), p. 70.

53. See above, p. 60.

54. See Lewis Hanke, Aristotle and the American Indians (London, 1959); Elliott, Spain and its World, ch. 3; Pagden, The Fall of Natural Man.

55. Alain Milhou, Colon y su mentalidad mesianica en el ambiente franciscanista espanol (Valladolid, 1983), especially pp. 350-7, and part 2, ch. 4.

56. Fray Ramon Pane, `Relation acerca de las Antiguedades de los Indios'. El primer tratado escrito en America, ed. Jose Juan Arrom (Mexico City, 1974); English translation by Susan C. Griswold, An Account of the Antiquities of the Indians (Durham, NC, 1999).

57. Lewis Hanke, The Spanish Struggle for Justice in the Conquest of America (Philadelphia, 1949). For the Laws of Burgos, Konetzke, Coleccion de documentos, 1, doc. 25, and Lesley Byrd Simpson (trans. and ed.), The Laws of Burgos of 1512-1513 (San Francisco, 1960). See also Simpson, The Encomienda in New Spain, ch. 3.

58. Angel Losada, Fray Bartolome de las Casas a la luz de la modern critica histdrica (Madrid, 1970), ch. 4.

59. Pedro de Leturia S.I., Relations entre la Santa Sede e Hispanoamerica. 1. Epoca del Real Patronato, 1493-1800 (Caracas, 1959), ch. 1; Ismael Sanchez Bella, Iglesia y estado en la America espanola (Pamplona, 1990), pp. 22-3.

60. Cortes, Letters from Mexico, pp. 332-3.

61. Robert Ricard, La `Conquete spirituelle' du Mexique (Paris, 1933), p. 35; Fernando de Armas Medina, Cristianizacion del Peru, 1532-1600 (Seville, 1953), pp. 21-36.

62. See below, p. 185.

63. Jacobs, Los movimientos, pp. 92-5.

64. Lockhart and Schwartz, Early Latin America, p. 109.

65. Ricard, La `Conquete spirituelle', pp. 320-2.

66. Pierre Duviols, La Lutte contre les religions autochtones dans le Peron colonial (Lima, 1971), pp. 82-3.

67. Inga Clendinnen, Ambivalent Conquests. Maya and Spaniard in Yucatan, 1517-1570 (Cambridge, 1987), p. 70.

68. Cited by Elliott, The Old World and the New, p. 33.

69. Jose Luis Suarez Roca, Lingiiistica misionera espanola (Oviedo, 1992), p. 42.

70. For the mendicant chroniclers of New Spain, see Georges Bauder, Utopia e historia en Mexico. Los primeros cronistas de la civilization mexicana (1520-1569) (Madrid, 1983). For Sahagun, see J. Jorge Klor de Alva, H. B. Nicholson and Elise Quinones Keber (eds), The Work of Bernardino de Sahagun. Pioneer Ethnographer of Sixteenth-Century Mexico (Institute for Mesoamerican Studies, Albany, NY11988).

71. Fernando Cervantes, The Devil in the New World. The Impact of Diabolism in New Spain (New Haven and London, 1994), ch. 1.

72. See Clendinnen, `Ways to the Sacred'.

73. Gibson, The Aztecs under Spanish Rule, p. 151.

74. Ibid., pp. 336-7; James Lockhart, The Nahuas After the Conquest (Stanford, CA, 1992), pp. 198-200.

75. Elliott, Spain and its World, pp. 61 and 52.

76. For problems of religious change and `syncretism', see William B. Taylor, Magistrates of the Sacred. Priests and Parishioners in Eighteenth-Century Mexico (Stanford, CA, 1996), pp. 51-62. For the general problem of acculturation in a conquest culture, George M. Foster, Culture and Conquest. America's Spanish Heritage (Chicago, 1960), although this is more concerned with the culture of the conquerors than the conquered. See also James Lockhart, Of Things of the Indies. Essays Old and New in Early Latin American History (Stanford, CA, 1999), ch. 11 ('Receptivity and Resistance').

77. Ricard, La `Conquete spirituelle', pp. 275-6.

78. Fray Bartolome de Las Casas, Apologetica historia sumaria, ed. Edmundo O'Gorman (2 vols, Mexico City, 1967), 2, p. 262.

79. See Pagden, The Fall of Natural Man, chs 3 and 5.

80. Cited Elliott, Spain and its World, p. 51.

81. Strachey, Travell into Virginia Britania, pp. 20 and 18.

82. William H. Seiler, `The Anglican Parish in Virginia', in James Morton Smith (ed.), Seventeenth-Century America. Essays in Colonial History (Chapel Hill, NC, 1959), p. 122.

83. Patricia U. Bonomi, Under the Cope of Heaven. Religion, Society and Politics in Colonial America (New York, 1986), p. 16.

84. Jon Butler, Awash in a Sea of Faith (Cambridge, MA and London, 1990), pp. 127-8.

85. Axtell, The Invasion Within, p. 180.

86. Bonomi, Cope of Heaven, pp. 21-2; Horn, Adapting to a New World, pp. 386-8.

87. See Edmund S. Morgan, Visible Saints. The History of a Puritan Idea (1963; repr. Ithaca, NY11971).

88. Lepore, The Name of War, p. xv; Axtell, The Invasion Within, pp. 133-4; Vaughan, New England Frontier, p. 240.

89. Edmund S. Morgan, Roger Williams. The Church and the State (1967; repr. New York, 1987), pp. 43-4.

90. Winthrop, ,Journal, p. 682.

91. See Vaughan, New England Frontier, chs 9-11.

92. Ibid., pp. 254-5; Joyce E. Chaplin, Subject Matter. Technology, the Body, and Science on the Anglo-American Frontier, 1500-1676 (Cambridge, MA, and London, 2001), pp. 289-90.

93. See the list of publications in Eliot's `Indian Library', as given in Lepore, The Name of War, p. 35.

94. Axtell, The Invasion Within, ch. 8.

95. See, most recently, Richard W. Cogley, John Eliot's Mission to the Indians before King Philip's War (Cambridge, MA and London, 1999).

96. See, for instance, for Peru, Duviols, La Lutte, pp. 248-63.

97. Ibid., pp. 257-8; Merrell, `Indians and Colonists', in Bailyn and Morgan, Strangers Within the Realm, p. 150.

98. Axtell, The Invasion Within, pp. 225-7.

99. Vaughan, New England Frontier, p. 303.

100. Ricard, La `Conquete spirituelle', pp. 266-9; Vaughan, New England Frontier, pp. 281-4.

101. Cited by Cogley John Eliot's Mission, p. 18.

102. Vaughan, New England Frontier, pp. 303-8; Axtell, The Invasion Within, p. 278. See also, for an examination in a comparative context of the challenges facing the New England colonists in converting Indians, Axtell, After Columbus, chs 3-7.

103. Cited by Vaughan, New England Frontier, p. 260.

104. Axtell, The Invasion Within, p. 141.

105. Cited in Roger Williams, The Complete Writings of Roger Williams (Providence, RI, 1866), 1, p. 136, n. 97, from John Wilson (?), The Day-Breaking of the Gospell with the Indians (1647). See also Axtell, The Invasion Within, pp. 175-8.

106. Juan de Matienzo, Gobierno del Peru (1567), ed. Guillermo Lehmann Villena (Paris and Lima, 1967), p. 80.

107. Axtell, The Invasion Within, pp. 285-6. For an example of the ways in which Puritan teaching could successfully be blended with Indian beliefs and traditions, see David J. Silverman, `Indians, Missionaries, and Religious Translation: Creating Wampanoag Christianity in Seventeenth-Century Martha's Vineyard', WMQ, 3rd set., 62 (2005), pp. 141-74.

108. Cited by Canup, Out of the Wilderness, p. 167.

109. Thomas Morton, New English Canaan (1632), in Force, Tracts, 2, no. 11, p. 77.

110. Vaughan, New England Frontier, p. 245.

111. For the Valladolid debate, see Lewis Hanke, All Mankind is One (DeKalb, IL, 1974), and his Spanish Struggle for Justice, ch. 8. Also Losada, Fray Bartolome' de Las Casas, ch. 13. The literature on Las Casas is now vast, but see in particular Pagden, Fall of Natural Man, for his views and those of Sepulveda in the general context of the sixteenth-century Spanish debate on the nature of the Indian.

112. Woodrow Borah, Justice by Insurance. The General Indian Court of Colonial Mexico and the Legal Aides of the Half-Real (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London, 1983), pp. 80-2.

113. Stafford Poole, Juan de Ovando. Governing the Spanish Empire in the Reign of Philip II (Norman, OK, 2004), pp. 154-6.

114. Bartolome de Las Casas, Tears of the Indians (repr. Williamstown, MA, 1970). For a modern translation, see Bartolome de Las Casas, A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies, trans. and ed. Nigel Griffin (Harmondsworth, 1992).

115. Borah, Justice by Insurance, p. 64.

116. Vaughan, New England Frontier, pp. 190-5; Katherine Hermes, "`Justice Will be Done Us." Algonquian Demands for Reciprocity in the Courts of European Settlers', in Tomlins and Mann (eds), The Many Legalities of Early America, pp. 123-49.