Heart of Europe: A History of the Roman Empire (133 page)

9
. A. T. Hack,
Das Empfangszeremoniell bei mittelalterlichen Papst-Kaiser-Treffen
(Cologne, 1999), pp.409–64.

10
. Among the numerous biographies the most useful include R. Collins,
Charlemagne
(Basingstoke, 1998); M. Becher,
Charlemagne
(New Haven, CT, 2003); A. Barbero,
Karl der Grosse. Vater Europas
(Stuttgart, 2007); H. Williams,
Emperor of the West: Charlemagne and the Carolingian Empire
(London, 2010).

11
. R. McKitterick,
Charlemagne: The Formation of a European Identity
(Cambridge, 2008), esp. pp.103, 378.

12
. Collins,
Charlemagne
, pp.141–50; Costambeys et al.,
Carolingian World
, pp.160–70; Becher,
Charlemagne
, pp.7–17; R. Folz,
The Coronation of Charlemagne
(London, 1974).

13
. Collins,
Early Medieval Europe
, p.269.

14
. The circumstances were clearly more complex than they are often portrayed in accounts of the Empire’s foundation as simply the pope’s attempt to replace Byzantium with a more reliable partner: e.g. W. Ullmann, ‘Reflections on the medieval Empire’,
TRHS
, 5th series, 14 (1964), 89–108; J. Muldoon,
Empire and Order: The Concept of Empire, 800–1800
(Basingstoke, 1999), pp.64–86.

15
. H. Beumann, ‘Nomen imperatoris. Studien zur Kaiseridee Karls des Großen’,
HZ
, 185 (1958), 515–49.

16
. B. Schneidmüller,
Die Kaiser des Mittelalters
(2nd ed., Munich, 2007), p.30. For the coronation, see Folz,
Coronation of Charlemagne
, pp.132–50.

17
. As argued by H. Mayr-Harting, ‘Charlemagne, the Saxons and the imperial coronation of 800’,
EHR
, 111 (1996), 1113–33.

18
. Collins,
Charlemagne
, p.148; and his ‘Charlemagne’s imperial coronation and the Annals of Lorsch’, in J. Story (ed.),
Charlemagne: Empire and Society
(Manchester, 2005), pp.52–70.

19
. Bullough, ‘Empire and emperordom’, 385–7; D. van Espelo, ‘A testimony of Carolingian rule? The
Codex epistolaris carolinus
, its historical context and the meaning of
imperium
’,
EME
, 21 (2013), 254–82.

20
. J. L. Nelson, ‘Women at the court of Charlemagne: A case of monstrous regiment?’, in J. C. Parsons (ed.),
Medieval Queenship
(Stroud, 1994), pp.43–61 at 47–9.

21
. A good overview of these problems can be found in K. F. Morrison’s introduction to T. E. Mommsen and K. F. Morrison (eds.),
Imperial Lives and Letters of the Eleventh Century
(New York, 2000), pp.3–40. For the contemporary understanding of the legal position, see Mierau,
Kaiser und Papst
, pp.163–220.

22
. L. Knabe,
Die gelasianische Zweigewaltentheorie bis zum Ende des Investiturstreits
(Berlin, 1936); W. Levison , ‘Die mittelalterliche Lehre von den beiden Schwertern’,
DA
, 9 (1952), 14–42.

23
. As acknowledged by Emperor Henry IV in his encyclical to the Empire’s bishops, Whitsun 1076, in Mommsen and Morrison (eds.),
Imperial Lives and Letters
, pp.151–4.

24
. M. Suchan,
Königsherrschaft im Streit. Konfliktaustragung in der Regierungszeit Heinrichs IV. zwischen Gewalt, Gespräch und Schriftlichkeit
(Stuttgart, 1997).

25
. R. W. Southern,
Western Society and the Church in the Middle Ages
(Harmondsworth, 1970), pp.91–100.

26
. J. Schatz,
Imperium, Pax et Iustitia. Das Reich–Friedensstiftung zwischen Ordo, Regnum und Staatlichkeit
(Berlin, 2000), pp.134–54.

27
. The former view is held by C. M. Booker,
Past Convictions: The Penance of Louis the Pious and the Decline of the Carolingians
(Philadelphia, 2009). The latter by M. de Jong,
The Penitential State: Authority and Atonement in the Age of Louis the Pious, 814–840
(Cambridge, 2009).

28
. G. Althoff,
Die Ottonen. Königsherrschaft ohne Staat
(2nd ed., Stuttgart, 2005), p.187.

29
. J. Laudage,
Die Salier. Das erste deutsche Königshaus
(2nd ed., Munich, 2007), pp.34–47.

30
. A. Coreth,
Pietas Austriaca
(West Lafayette, IN, 2004); M. Hengerer, ‘The funerals of the Habsburg emperors in the eighteenth century’, in M. Schaich (ed.),
Monarchy and Religion: The Transformation of Royal Culture in Eighteenth-Century Europe
(Oxford, 2007), pp.366–94. See also p.431.

31
. E. Boshof,
Königtum und Königsherrschaft im 10. und 11. Jahrhundert
(3rd ed., Munich, 2010), pp.101–8.

32
. Count Otto of Lomello’s account cited by G. Althoff,
Otto III
(Philadelphia, 2003), p.105. Althoff downplays the penitential aspect of this act. See also J. W. Bernhardt, ‘Concepts and practice of empire in Ottonian Germany (950–1024)’, in B. Weiler and S. MacLean (eds.),
Representations of Power in Medieval Germany, 800–1500
(Turnhout, 2006), pp.141–63 at 154–8; H. Helbig, ‘Fideles Dei et regis. Zur Bedeutungsent-wicklung von Glaube und Treue im hohen Mittelalter’,
AKG
, 33 (1951), 275–306. For the Gniezno leg of the trip, see pp.83, 206–7.

33
. Henry IV claimed he had been called to kingship by Christ and ruled ‘by the pious ordination of God’: letter to Pope Gregory VII in 1076, in Mommsen and Morrison (eds.),
Imperial Lives and Letters
, pp.150–51.

34
. H. Keller,
Ottonische Königsherrschaft: Organisation und Legitimation königlicher
Macht (Darmstadt, 2002), pp.168–71. For the insignia, see pp.267–9.

35
. A. Schulte, ‘Deutsche Könige, Kaiser, Päpste als Kanoniker in deutschen und römischen Kirchen’,
HJb
, 54 (1934), 137–77.

36
. Koch,
Auf dem Wege
, pp.61–99.

37
. M. Bloch,
The Royal Touch
(New York, 1989). The Royal Touch was said to cure scrofula.

38
. R. Morrissey,
Charlemagne and France: A Thousand Years of Mythology
(Notre Dame, IN, 2003), pp.96–7.

39
. J. Miethke, ‘Geschichtsprozess und zeitgenössisches Bewusstsein – Die Theorie des monarchischen Papsts im hohen und späteren Mittelalter’,
HZ
, 226 (1978), 564–99; A. Hof, ‘“Plenitudo potestatis” und “imitatio imperii” zur Zeit Innozenz III.’,
Zeitschrift für Kirchengeschichte
, 66 (1954/55), 39–71.

40
. R. McKitterick (ed.),
Carolingian Culture: Emulation and Innovation
(Cambridge, 1994); E. E. Stengel,
Abhandlungen und Untersuchungen zur Geschichte des Kaisergedanken im Mittelalter
(Cologne, 1965), pp.17–30.

41
. S. Coupland, ‘Charlemagne’s coinage: Ideology and economy’, in Story (ed.),
Charlemagne
, pp.211–29.

42
. For the transition from late antiquity to the early Middle Ages generally, see C. Wickham,
The Inheritance of Rome: A History of Europe from 400 to 1000
(London, 2009). The socio-economic dimension is discussed further on pp.485–98.

43
. Todd,
Early Germans
, pp.233–4.

44
. Stengel,
Abhandlungen
, pp.65–74; Bernhardt, ‘Concepts and practice’, 144–7; J. A. Brundage, ‘Widukind of Corvey and the “non-Roman” imperial idea’,
Mediaeval Studies
, 22 (1960), 15–26.

45
. A good summary of this debate is in Althoff,
Otto III
, pp.81–9. See also G. Althoff and H. Keller,
Heinrich I. und Otto der Grosse. Neubeginn und karolingisches Erbe
(Göttingen, 1985).

46
. H. A. Myers,
Medieval Kingship
(Chicago, 1982), pp.9–12, 121–2; Stengel,
Abhandlungen
, esp. pp.17–30.

47
. Koch,
Auf dem Wege
, pp.128, 230–45, 277–8. The relative balance of elective and hereditary monarchy in the Empire is discussed further on pp.301–5.

48
. Koch,
Auf dem Wege
, pp.200–215; F. Seibt,
Karl IV. Ein Kaiser in Europa 1346 bis 1378
(Munich, 1978), pp.207–15.

49
. S. Epperlein, ‘Über das romfreie Kaisertum im frühen Mittelalter’,
Jahrbuch für Geschichte
, 2 (1967), 307–42.

50
. S. Weinfurter,
The Salian Century
(Philadelphia, 1999), pp.27–8.

51
. W. Eggert and B. Pätzold,
Wir-Gefühl und Regnum Saxonum bei frühmittelalterlichen Geschichtsschreibern
(Cologne, 1984); E. Müller-Mertens,
Regnum Teutonicum. Aufkommen und Verbreitung der deutschen Reichs- und Königsauffassung im früheren Mittelalter
(Vienna, 1970). The title king of the Romans had already been used briefly by Henry II. See also pp.179–200.

52
. W. Goez,
Translatio imperii. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Geschichts-denkens und der politischen Theorie im Mittelalter und in der frühen Neuzeit
(Tübingen, 1958); E. Müller-Mertens, ‘Römisches Reich im Besitz der Deutschen, der König an Stelle des Augustus’,
HZ
, 282 (2006), 1–58.

53
. H. Thomas, ‘Julius Caesar und die Deutschen’, in S. Weinfurter (ed.),
Die Salier und das Reich
(3 vols., Sigmaringen, 1991), III, pp.245–77.

54
. M. Gabriele,
An Empire of Memory: The Legend of Charlemagne, the Franks, and Jerusalem before the First Crusade
(Oxford, 2011); A. A. Latowsky,
Emperor of the World: Charlemagne and the Construction of Imperial Authority, 800–1229
(Ithaca, NY, 2013).

55
. B. Töpfer,
Das kommende Reich des Friedens. Zur Entwicklung chiliastischer Zukunftshoffnungen im Hochmittelalter
(Berlin, 1964); L. Roach, ‘Emperor Otto III and the end of time’,
TRHS
, 6th series, 23 (2013), 75–102.

56
. H. Löwe, ‘Kaisertum und Abendland in ottonischer und frühsalischer Zeit’,
HZ
, 196 (1963), 529–62 at 547.

57
. C. Morris,
The Papal Monarchy: The Western Church from 1050 to 1250
(Oxford, 1989), pp.518–26; Schatz,
Imperium
, pp.198–203.

58
. F. Shaw, ‘Friedrich II as the “last emperor”’,
GH
, 19 (2001), 321–39; P. Munz,
Frederick Barbarossa
(London, 1969), pp.3–21; J. M. Headley, ‘The Habsburg world empire and the revival of Ghibellinism’,
Medieval and Renaissance Studies
, 7 (1978), 93–127.