Heart of Europe: A History of the Roman Empire (134 page)

59
. L. Scales,
The Shaping of German Identity: Authority and Crisis, 1245–1414
(Cambridge, 2012), p.210.

60
. Muldoon,
Empire and Order
, pp.18–19; A. Colas,
Empire
(Cambridge, 2007), esp. pp.7–9, 18–19, 32–3; J. H. Burns,
Lordship, Kingship and Empire: The Idea of Monarchy, 1400–1525
(Oxford, 1992), pp.97–100; L. E. Scales, ‘France and the Empire: The viewpoint of Alexander of Roes’,
French History
, 9 (1995), 394–416. More detail in J. Kirchberg,
Kaiseridee und Mission unter den Sachsenkaiser und den ersten Saliern von Otto I. bis Heinrich III.
(Berlin, 1934). The challenge of royal sovereignty is explored further on pp.169–76.

61
. According to M. Innes, ‘Charlemagne’s will: Piety, politics and the imperial succession’,
EHR
, 112 (1997), 833–55, Charlemagne had probably envisaged a collegiate style of rule with close relatives sharing power under a common patriarch.

62
. J. L. Nelson,
The Frankish World, 750–900
(London, 1996), pp.89–98; Costambeys et al.,
Carolingian World
, pp.208–13.

63
. C. Brühl,
Deutschland – Frankreich. Die Geburt zweier Völker
(Cologne, 1990), pp.359–62; F.-R. Erkens, ‘
Divisio legitima
und
unitas imperii
. Teilungspraxis und Einheitsstreben bei der Thronfolge im Frankenreich’,
DA
, 52 (1996), 423–85; W. Brown, ‘The idea of empire in Carolingian Bavaria’, in Weiler and MacLean (eds.),
Representations of Power
, pp.37–55.

64
. E.g. P. Riché,
The Carolingians: A Family who Forged Europe
(Philadelphia, 1993), p.168; J.-F. Noël,
Le Saint-Empire
(Paris, 1976), pp.7–11.

65
. Schatz,
Imperium
, pp.33, 55–68, 100–113; W. Blockmans, ‘The fascination of the Empire’, in E. Bussière et al. (eds.),
Europa
(Antwerp, 2001), pp.51–68 at 54. Further discussion on pp.603–4.

66
. G. Claeys,
Searching for Utopia: The History of an Idea
(London, 2011).

67
. This is a particular problem with the otherwise useful work by Schatz,
Imperium
.

68
. Wipo of Burgundy’s chronicle, in Mommsen and Morrison (eds.),
Imperial Lives and Letters
, p.82.

69
. H.-W. Goetz, ‘Regnum
.
Zum politischen Denken der Karolingerzeit’,
ZSRG GA
, 104 (1987), 110–89 at 117–24.

70
. E. Karpf,
Herrscherlegitimation und Reichsbegriff in der ottonischen Geschichtsschreibung des 10. Jahrhundert
(Stuttgart, 1985).

71
. Mommsen and Morrison (eds.),
Imperial Lives and Letters
, p.72. Dynasticism is discussed further on pp.422–31.

72
. T. Zotz, ‘Carolingian tradition and Ottonian-Salian innovation’, in A. J. Duggan (ed.),
Kings and Kingship in Medieval Europe
(London, 1993), pp.69–100 at 70–71; H. Keller, ‘Die Ottonen und Karl der Große’,
FMS
, 34 (2000), 112–31; M. Gabriele and J. Stuckey (eds.),
The Legend of Charlemagne in the Middle Ages
(Basingstoke, 2008).

73
. P. Classen, ‘Corona imperii. Die Krone als Inbegriff des römisch-deutschen Reiches im 12. Jahrhundert’, in P. Classen and P. Scheibert (eds.),
Festschrift für Percy Ernst Schramm
(2 vols., Wiesbaden, 1964), I, pp.90–101. See pp.267–8 for the imperial crown.

74
. Mommsen and Morrison (eds.),
Imperial Lives and Letters
, p.73. Though this famous passage was penned by Wipo, it nonetheless reflected Conrad’s own thinking: H. Wolfram,
Conrad II, 990–1039
(University Park, PA, 2006), pp.324–6.

75
. J. Petersohn, ‘Rom und der Reichstitel “Sacrum Romanum Imperium”’,
Sitzungsbericht der wissenschaftlichen Gesellschaft an der Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main
, 32 (1994), 71–101; Koch,
Auf dem Wege
, pp.253–75.

76
. H. Conring,
New Discourse on the Roman-German Emperor
[1641] (Tempe, AZ, 2005).

77
. Examples of this range from popular accounts like G. H. Perris,
Germany and the German Emperor
(London, 1912), p.33, to scholarly works like Myers,
Medieval Kingship
, pp.120–21, 218–22.

78
. This compares to six Greeks, five Syrians, five Romans and one Italian, 654–752: Southern,
Western Society and the Church
, pp.54, 65.

79
. Hack,
Das Empfangszeremoniell
, pp.605–25.

80
. H. Zimmermann, ‘Imperatores Italiae’, in H. Beumann (ed.),
Historische Forschungen für Walter Schlesinger
(Cologne, 1974), pp.379–99.

81
. T. Reuter (ed.),
The Annals of Fulda
(Manchester, 1992), p.135; Mierau,
Kaiser und Papst
, pp.53–5.

82
. P. Partner,
The Lands of St Peter: The Papal State in the Middle Ages and the Early Renaissance
(London, 1972), pp.77–102.

83
. H. Keller, ‘Entscheidungssituationen und Lernprozesse in der “Anfängen der deutschen Geschichte”. Die “Italien- und Kaiserpolitik” Ottos des Großen’,
FMS
, 33 (1999), 20–48; H. Zielinski, ‘Der Weg nach Rom: Otto der Große und die Anfänge der ottonischen Italienpolitik’, in W. Hartmann and K. Herkbers (eds.),
Die Faszination der Papstgeschichte
(Cologne, 2008), pp.97–107.

84
. The best contemporary account is F. A. Wright (ed.),
The Works of Liudprand of Cremona
(London, 1930), pp.215–32. For the events, see T. Reuter,
Germany in the Early Middle Ages, c.800–1056
(Harlow, 1991), pp.169–73; M. Becher,
Otto der Große. Kaiser und Reich
(Munich, 2012), pp.215–30.

85
. The
Ottonianum
is printed in B. H. Hill Jr,
Medieval Monarchy in Action: The German Empire from Henry I to Henry IV
(London, 1972), pp.149–52. See also H. Zimmermann, ‘Das Privilegium Ottonianum von 962 und seine Problemgeschichte’,
MIÖG
, supplement 20 (1962), 147–90.

86
. Collins,
Early Medieval Europe
, p.347.

87
. Althoff,
Die Ottonen
, p.123.

88
. Althoff,
Otto III
, pp.61–2, 72–81. The Empire’s judicial practice is discussed on pp.610–37.

89
. The latter is argued by Weinfurter,
Salian Century
, pp.91–6, on the grounds Suitger remained bishop of Bamberg whilst pope. See also G. Frech, ‘Die deutschen Päpste’, in Weinfurter (ed.),
Die Salier
, II, pp.303–32.

90
. For the debate whether these changes constitute the ‘first European revolution’, see R. I. Moore,
The First European Revolution c.970–1215
(Oxford, 2000); K. Leyser, ‘Am Vorabend der ersten europäischen Revolution’,
HZ
, 257 (1993), 1–28. The concept is disputed by R. Schieffer, ‘“The papal revolution in law”?’,
Bulletin of Medieval Canon Law
, new series, 22 (1998), 19–30. For the impact of these changes on the Empire, see pp.488–93, 504–8.

91
. C. H. Lawrence,
Medieval Monasticism
(2nd ed., London, 1989); H. J. Hummer,
Politics and Power in Early Medieval Europe: Alsace and the Frankish Realm, 600–1000
(Cambridge, 2005), pp.227–49.

92
. J. Howe,
Church Reform and Social Change in Eleventh-Century Italy
(Philadelphia, 1997); K. G. Cushing,
Reform and the Papacy in the Eleventh Century
(Manchester, 2005), pp.34–7, 91–5; M. Rubin (ed.),
Medieval Christianity in Practice
(Princeton, 2009).

93
. J. Howe, ‘The nobility’s reform of the medieval church’,
AHR
, 93 (1988), 317–39; N. Kruppa (ed.),
Adlige – Stifter – Mönche. Zum Verhältnis zwischen Klöstern und mittelalterlichem Adel
(Göttingen, 2007).

94
. More detail on these obligations on pp.333–4.

95
. J. Miethke and A. Bühler,
Kaiser und Papst im Konflikt
(Düsseldorf, 1988), pp.17–23; J. T. Gilchrist,
Canon Law in the Age of Reform, 11th–12th Centuries
(Aldershot, 1993).

96
. J. Laudage,
Priesterbild und Reformpapsttum im 11. Jahrhundert
(Cologne, 1985).

97
. The rules were revised again in 1179, expanding the number of cardinals and establishing the requirement of a two-thirds majority: F. J. Baumgartner,
Behind Locked Doors: A History of the Papal Elections
(Basingstoke, 2003). See more generally I. S. Robinson,
The Papacy, 1073–1198
(Cambridge, 1990); Morris,
Papal Monarchy
, pp.79–108.

98
. D. J. Hay,
The Military Leadership of Matilda of Canossa, 1046–1115
(Manchester, 2008); M. K. Spike,
Tuscan Countess: The Life and Extraordinary Times of Matilda of Canossa
(New York, 2004).

99
. The arrival of the Normans is covered in greater depth on pp.191–2.

100
. E. Boshof, ‘Das Reich in der Krise. Überlegungen zum Regierungsausgang Heinrichs III.’,
HZ
, 228 (1979), 265–87. For the regency, see pp.315–16.

101
. H. E. J. Cowdrey,
Pope Gregory VII, 1073–1085
(Oxford, 1998); G. Tellenbach,
Die westliche Kirche vom 10. bis zum frühen 12. Jahrhundert
(Göttingen, 1988); W. Hartmann,
Der Investiturstreit
(3rd ed., Munich, 2007).

102
. M. Suchan, ‘Publizistik im Zeitalter Heinrichs IV.’, in K. Hruza (ed.),
Propaganda, Kommunikation und Öffentlichkeit (11.–16.Jahrhundert)
(Vienna, 2003), pp.29–45, and her
Königsherrschaft im Streit  
(Stuttgart, 1997); I. S. Robinson,
Henry IV of Germany, 1056–1106
(Cambridge, 1999), and his
Authority and Resistance in the Investiture Contest: The Polemical Literature of the Late Eleventh Century
(Manchester, 1978).

103
. The term
investiturae controversia
dates from 1123: B. Schilling, ‘Ist das Wormser Konkordat überhaupt nicht geschlossen worden?’,
DA
, 58 (2002), 123–91 at 187–8.

104
. R. Schieffer,
Die Entstehung des päpstlichen Investiturverbots für den deutschen König
(Stuttgart, 1981); H. Keller, ‘Die Investitur’,
FMS
, 27 (1993), 51–86, and his ‘Ritual, Symbolik und Visualisierung in der Kultur des ottonischen Reiches’,
FMS
, 35 (2001), 23–59 at 26–7.