Heart of Europe: A History of the Roman Empire (138 page)

102
. M. Heckel, ‘Die Religionsprozesse des Reichskammergerichts im konfessionell gespaltenen Reichskirchenrecht’,
ZSRG KA
, 77 (1991), 283–350; G. Dolezalek, ‘Die juristische Argumentation der Assessoren am Reichskammergericht zu den Reformationsprozessen 1532–1538’, in B. Diestelkamp (ed.),
Das Reichskammergericht in der deutschen Geschichte
(Cologne, 1990), pp.25–58.

103
. Schindling and Ziegler (eds.),
Die Territorien des Reichs
, I, pp.59–61.

104
. R. Bireley,
The Refashioning of Catholicism, 1450–1700
(Basingstoke, 1999); M. R. Forster,
Catholic Germany from the Reformation to the Enlightenment
(Basingstoke, 2007), pp.1–37.

105
. Quotation from Whaley,
Germany
, I, p.323. See also L. Schorn-Schütte (ed.),
Das Interim 1548/50
(Heidelberg, 2005). On Charles’s other measures at this point, see pp.228–9, 436–9.

106
. N. Rein,
The Chancery of God: Protestant Print, Polemic and Propaganda against the Empire, Magdeburg 1546–1551
(Aldershot, 2008); K. Schäfer,
Der Fürstenaufstand gegen Karl V. im Jahr 1552
(Taunusstein, 2009); M. Fuchs and R. Rebitsch (eds.),
Kaiser und Kurfürst. Aspekte des Fürstenaufstandes 1552
(Münster, 2010).

107
. A. Kohler,
Ferdinand I, 1503–1564
(Munich, 2003), pp.225–51; E. Wolgast, ‘Religionsfrieden als politisches Problem der frühen Neuzeit’,
HZ
, 282 (2006), 59–96.

108
. The most substantial of the many works on the Peace is A. Gotthard,
Der Augsburger Religionsfrieden
(Münster, 2004), which in some respects returns to older, more pessimistic interpretations. A more positive corrective is provided by M. Heckel, ‘Politischer Friede und geistliche Freiheit im Ringen um die Wahrheit. Zur Historiographie des Augsburger Religionsfriedens von 1555’,
HZ
, 282 (2006), 391–425. For the deliberate ambiguities and dissimulation in the text, see M. Heckel, ‘Autonomia und Pacis Compositio’,
ZSRG KA
, 45 (1959), 141–248.

109
. K. Schlaich, ‘Maioritas – protestatio – itio in partes – corpus Evangelicorum’,
ZSRG KA
, 63 (1977), 264–99 at 288–9.

110
. Wolgast, ‘Religionsfrieden’, pp.63–4. See also H. Louthan,
Converting Bohemia: Force and Persuasion in the Catholic Reformation
(Cambridge, 2009), and pp.28–9.

111
. G. R. Potter,
Zwingli
(Cambridge, 1976); M. Taplin, ‘Switzerland’, in A. Pettegree (ed.),
The Reformation World
(London, 2000), pp.169–89. The emergence of the Swiss Confederation is covered on pp.585–91.

112
. B. Gordon, ‘Italy’, in Pettegree (ed.),
Reformation World
, pp.277–95; M. Firpo, ‘The Italian Reformation’, in R. Po-chia Hsia (ed.),
A Companion to the Reformation World
(Oxford, 2004), pp.169–84.

113
. E. Cameron,
The Reformation of the Heretics: The Waldenses of the Alps, 1480–1580
(Oxford, 1984), pp.163–6.

114
. W. Reinhard, ‘Pressures towards confessionalization? Prolegomena to a theory of the confessional age’, in C. Scott Dixon (ed.),
The German Reformation
(Oxford, 1999), pp.169–92. Detailed coverage in Schindling and Ziegler (eds.),
Die Territorien des Reichs
.

115
. The literature on these topics is now extensive. For a summary see S. R. Boettcher, ‘Confessionalization: Reformation, religion, absolutism and modernity’,
History Compass
, 2 (2004), 1–10. Good case studies include M. R. Forster,
Catholic Revival in the Age of the Baroque: Religious Identity in Southwest Germany, 1550–1750
(Cambridge, 2001); W. B. Smith,
Reformation and the German Territorial State: Upper Franconia, 1300–1630
(Rochester, NY, 2008).

116
. H. T. Gräf,
Konfession und internationales System. Die Außenpolitik Hessen-Kassels im konfessionellen Zeitalter
(Darmstadt, 1993), pp.108–11. This period of imperial politics is covered in more detail by A. P. Luttenberger,
Kurfürsten, Kaiser und Reich. Politische Führung und Friedenssicherung unter Ferdinand I. und Maximilian II.
(Mainz, 1994); Whaley,
Germany
, I, pp.339–474.

117
. J. Engelbrecht, ‘Staat, Recht und Konfession. Krieg und Frieden im Rechtsdenken des Reiches’, in H. Lademacher and S. Groenveld (eds.),
Krieg und Kultur
(Münster, 1998), pp.113–28; A. Schmidt, ‘Irenic patriotism in sixteenth-and seventeenth-century German political discourse’,
HJ
, 53 (2010), 243–69.

118
. G. Murdock,
Beyond Calvin: The Intellectual, Political and Cultural World of Europe’s Reformed Churches
(Basingstoke, 2004).

119
. O. Chadwick, ‘The making of a reforming prince: Frederick III, elector Palatine’, in R. B. Knox (ed.),
Reformation Conformity and Dissent
(London, 1977), pp.44–69; B. Nischan,
Prince, People and Confession: The Second Reformation in Brandenburg
(Philadelphia, 1994). Emden’s exceptional character owed much to the presence of Dutch exiles: A. Pettegree,
Emden and the Dutch Revolt
(Oxford, 1992).

120
. T. Sarx, ‘Heidelberger Irenik am Vorabend des Dreißigjährigen Krieges’, in A. Ernst and A. Schindling (eds.),
Union und Liga, 1608/09
(Stuttgart, 2010), pp.167–96; V. Press,
Calvinismus und Territorialstaat
(Stuttgart, 1970).

121
. Palatine-Bavarian rivalry is neglected in many general accounts of this period. Further coverage in A. L. Thomas,
A House Divided: Wittelsbach Confessional Court Cultures in the Holy Roman Empire, c.1550–1650
(Leiden, 2010).

122
. The issues are summarized effectively by M. Heckel, ‘Die Krise der Religionsverfassung des Reiches und die Anfänge des Dreißigjährigen Krieges’, in K. Repgen (ed.),
Krieg und Politik, 1618–1648
(Munich, 1988), pp. 107–31. See also P. H. Wilson, ‘The Thirty Years War as the Empire’s constitutional crisis’, in R. J. W. Evans et al. (eds.),
The Holy Roman Empire, 1495–1806
(Oxford, 2011), pp.95–114.

123
. R. Pörtner,
The Counter-Reformation in Central Europe: Styria 1580–1630
(Oxford, 2001); H. Louthan,
The Quest for Compromise: Peacemakers in Counter-Reformation Vienna
(Cambridge, 1997); J. F. Patrouch,
A Negotiated Settlement: The Counter-Reformation in Upper Austria under the Habsburgs
(Boston, 2000); K. J. MacHardy,
War, Religion and Court Patronage in Habsburg Austria: The Social and Cultural Dimensions of Political Interaction, 1521–1622
(Basingstoke, 2003).

124
. For the debate on this point see P. H. Wilson, ‘The causes of the Thirty Years War, 1618–48’,
EHR
, 123 (2008), 554–86; W. Schulze (ed.),
Friedliche Intentionen – Kriegerische Effekte. War der Ausbruch des Dreißigjährigen Krieges unvermeidlich?
(St Katharinen, 2002). For the following see P. H. Wilson,
Europe’s Tragedy: A History of the Thirty Years War
(London, 2009); O. Asbach and P. Schröder (eds.),
The Ashgate Research Companion to the Thirty Years’ War
(Farnham, 2014). The Union and the League are discussed further on pp.564–5.

125
. J. Polišenský,
Tragic Triangle: The Netherlands, Spain and Bohemia, 1617–1621
(Prague, 1991). For an account by one of the Defenestrators’ victims, see P. H. Wilson (ed.),
The Thirty Years War: A Sourcebook
(Basingstoke, 2010), pp.35–7. All three survived their fall.

126
. P. H. Wilson, ‘Dynasty, constitution and confession: The role of religion in the Thirty Years War’,
International History Review
, 30 (2008), 473–514; H. Schilling (ed.),
Konfessioneller Fundamentalismus
(Munich, 2007); F. Brendle and A. Schindling (eds.),
Religionskriege im Alten Reich und in Alteuropa
(Münster, 2006). See also the informative case study by H. Berg,
Military Occupation under the Eyes of the Lord: Studies in Erfurt during the Thirty Years War
(Göttingen, 2010).

127
. Further elaboration of these points in P. H. Wilson, ‘Meaningless conflict? The character of the Thirty Years War’, in F. C. Schneid (ed.),
The Projection and Limitations of Imperial Powers, 1618–1850
(Leiden, 2012), pp.12–33, and ‘Was the Thirty Years War a “total war”?’, in E. Charters et al. (eds.),
Civilians and War in Europe, 1618–1815
(Liverpool, 2012), pp.21–35.

128
. R. Bireley,
Ferdinand II
,
Counter-Reformation Emperor, 1578–1637
(Cambridge, 2014), esp. pp.91–166; T. Brockmann,
Dynastie, Kaiseramt und Konfession. Politik und Ordnungsvorstellungen Ferdinands II
.
im Dreißigjährigen Krieg
(Paderborn, 2011); D. Albrecht,
Maximilian I. von Bayern 1573–1651
(Munich, 1998); P. D. Lockhart,
Denmark in the Thirty Years, War, 1618–1648
(Selinsgrove, 1996).

129
. H. Urban,
Das Restitutionsedikt
(Munich, 1968); M. Frisch,
Das Restitutionsedikt Kaiser Ferdinands II
.
vom 6. März 1629
(Tübingen, 1993). See also pp.457–8.

130
. I. Schuberth,
Lützen – på spaning efter ett minne
(Stockholm, 2007); M. Reichel and I. Schuberth (eds.),
Gustav Adolf
(Dößel, 2007); K. Cramer,
The Thirty Years’ War and German Memory in the Nineteenth Century
(Lincoln, NB, 2007). For the presentation of Sweden’s motives during the war, see E. Ringmar,
Identity, Interest and Action: A Cultural Explanation of Sweden’s Intervention in the Thirty Years War
(Cambridge, 1996).

131
. J. Öhman,
Der Kampf um den Frieden. Schweden und der Kaiser im Dreißigjährigen Krieg
(Vienna, 2005). For the following see also D. Croxton,
Peacemaking in Early Modern Europe: Cardinal Mazarin and the Congress of Westphalia, 1643–1648
(Selinsgrove, 1999), and his
Westphalia: The Last Christian Peace
(New York, 2013).

132
. The full texts of both are available in various translations at
www.pax-westphalica.de/ipmipo/index.html
. The territorial redistribution is discussed on pp.220–29, while pp.441–3 cover the impact on the imperial constitution in greater depth.

133
. R.-P. Fuchs,
Ein ‘Medium zum Frieden’. Die Normaljahrsregel und die Beendigung des Dreißigjährigen Krieges
(Munich, 2010).

134
. Schlaich, ‘Majoritas’.

135
. J. Luh,
Unheiliges Römisches Reich. Der konfessionelle Gegensatz 1648 bis 1806
(Potsdam, 1995), pp.17–43. For the debate on the place of religion in politics after 1648, see D. Stievermann, ‘Politik und Konfession im 18. Jahrhundert’,
ZHF
, 18 (1991), 177–99.

136
. Whaley,
Germany
, II, p.63.