Masters of the Planet (40 page)

Pickford, M., B. Senut, D. Gommery, J. Treil. 2002. Bipedalism in
Orrorin tugensis
revealed by its femora. C. R. Palévol. 1: 191–203.

Rook, L., L. Bondioli, M Köhler, S. Moyà-Solà, R. Macchiarelli. 1999.
Oreopithecus
was a bipedal ape after all: Evidence from the iliac cancellous architecture.
Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA
96: 8795–8799.

Senut, B., M. Pickford, D. Gommery, P. Mein, K. Cheboi, Y. Coppens. 2001. First hominid from the Miocene (Lukeino Formation, Kenya).
C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris,
ser. IIa, 332: 137–144.

Tattersall, I. 2009.
The Fossil Trail: How We Know What We Think We Know about Human Evolution.
2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press.

Walker, A., P. Shipman. 2005
The Ape in the Tree: An Intellectual and Natural History of
Proconsul. Harvard: Belknap Press.

Ward, C. V., M. G. Leakey, A. Walker. 2001. Morphology of
Australopithecus anamensis
from Kanapoi and Allia Bay, Kenya.
Jour. Hum. Evol.
41: 255–368.

White, T. D., G. WoldeGabriel, B. Asfaw, S. Ambrose, Y. Bayene, R. L. Bernor, J.-R. Boisserie, and numerous others. 2006. Assa Issie, Aramis and the origin of
Australopithecus. Nature
440: 883–889.

White, T. D. and numerous others. 2009. Special Issue on
Ardipithecus ramidus. Science
326: 5–106.

Zollikofer,
C. P. E., M. S. Ponce de León, D. E. Lieberman, F. Guy, D. Pilbeam, A. Likius, H. T. Mackaye, P. Vignaud, M. Brunet. 2005. Virtual cranial reconstruction of
Sahelanthropus tchadensis. Nature
434: 755–759.

CHAPTER 2: THE RISE OF THE BIPEDAL APES

The classic description of the early Hadar hominid collections is found in Johanson et al. (1982), and the Hadar
Australopithecus afarensis
crania and other more recently collected specimens are documented by Kimbel et al. (2004). A captivating general account of the discovery and initial analysis of the
A. afarensis
fossils is by Johanson and Edey (1982). It is still in print. See Aronson et al. (2008) for an overview of Hadar environments. The “hyper-bipedal” interpretation of
A. afarensis
locomotion is summarized by Lovejoy (1988); the classic reinterpretation emphasizing arboreal features is by Stern and Susman (1983), and limb proportions were analyzed by Jungers (1982). Rak (1991) reconsidered Lucy's pelvic anatomy, and a recent overview of
A. afarensis
locomotion is provided by Ward (2002). For dental descriptions of modern hominoids see Aiello and Dean (1990), and of
A. afarensis
see Johanson and White (1979). A recent analysis of dental microwear in the latter is provided by Ungar (2004). For an account of the A. L. 333 locality, see Behrensmeyer (2008). An overall description of the Laetoli sites is found in Leakey and Harris (1987), and the most recent analysis of the footprints is by Raichlen et al. (2010).
Australopithecus afarensis
was named by Johanson et al. (1978). The original account of the Dikika child was by Alemseged et al. (2006), and it is well illustrated in Sloan (2006). The cut-marked bones from Dikika were published by McPherron et al. (2010), and the Woranso-Mille skeleton by Haile-Selassie et al. (2010). The Bouri hominid was named by Asfaw et al. (1999), and the cut-marked bones from the same deposits were published by deHeinzelin et al. (1999). The Gona stone tools were announced by Semaw (2000), and the cut-marked bones from this area by Dominguez-Rodrigo (2005). The Kanzi research was reported by Schick et al. (1999).

Aiello, L., C. Dean. 1990.
An Introduction to Human Evolutionary Anatomy.
London and San Diego: Academic Press.

Alemseged, Z., F. Spoor, W. H. Kimbel, R. Bone, D. Geraads, D. Reed, J. G. Wynn. A juvenile early hominid skeleton from Dikika, Ethiopia.
Nature
443: 296–301.

Aronson, J. L., M. Hailemichael, S. M. Savin. 2008. Hominid environments at Hadar from paleosol studies in a framework of Ethiopian climate change.
Jour. Hum. Evol.
55: 532–550.

Asfaw, B., T. White, O. Lovejoy, B. Latimer, S. Simpson and G. Suwa. 1999.
Australopithecus garhi:
A new species of early hominin from Ethiopia.
Science
284: 629–635.

Behrensmeyer, A. K. 2008. Paleoenvironmental context of the Pliocene A.L. 333 “First Family” hominin locality, Hadar Formation, Ethiopia.
Geol. Soc. Amer. Spec. Pap.
446: 203–235.

deHeinzelin, J., J. D. Clark, T. White, W. Hart, P. Renne, G. WoldeGabriel, Y. Beyene, E. Vrba. 1999. Environment and Behavior of 2.5-million-year-old Bouri hominids.
Science
284: 625–629.

Dominguez-Rodrigo, M., T. R. Pickering, S. Semaw, M. J. Rogers. 2005. Cutmarked bones from Pliocene archaeological sites at Gona, Ethiopia: Implications
for the function of the world's earliest stone tools.
Jour. Hum. Evol.
48: 109–121.

Haile-Selassie, Y, B. M. Latimer, M. Alene, A. L. Deino, L. Gibert, S. M. Melillo, B. Z. Saylor, G. R. Scott, and C. O. Lovejoy. 2010. An early
Australopithecus afarensis
postcranium from Woranso-Mille, Ethiopia.
Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA
107: 12121–12126.

Johanson, D. C., M. Edey. 1982:
Lucy: The Beginnings of Humankind.
New York: Warner Books.

Johanson, D. C., T. White. 1979. A systematic assessment of early African hominids.
Science
203: 321-–330.

Johanson, D. C., T. D. White, Y. Coppens. 1978. A new species of the genus
Australopithecus
(Primates: Hominidae) from the Pliocene of eastern Africa.
Kirtlandia
28: 1–14.

Johanson, D. C., et al. 1982. Special Issue: Pliocene hominid fossils from Hadar, Ethiopia.
Amer. Jour. Phys. Anthropol.
57: 373–724.

Jungers, W. L. Lucy's limbs: Skeletal allometry and locomotion in
Australopithecus afarensis. Nature
297: 676–678.

Kimbel, W. H., Y. Rak, D. C. Johanson. 2004.
The Skull of
Australopithecus afarensis. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.

Leakey, M. D., J. M. Harris (eds.). 1987.
Laetoli: A Pliocene Site in Northern Tanzania.
Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Lovejoy, C. O. 1988. Evolution of human walking.
Scientific American
259: 118–125.

McPherron, S., Z. Alemseged, C. W. Marean, J. G. Wynne, D. Reed, D. Geraads, R. Bobe, H. A. Béarat. 2010. Evidence for stone-tool-assisted consumption of animal tissues before 3.39 million years ago at Dikika, Ethiopia.
Nature
466: 857–860.

Raichlen, D. A., A. D. Gordon, W. E. H. Harcourt-Smith, A. D. Foster, W. R. Haas. 2010. Laetoli footprints preserve earliest direct evidence of humanlike bipedal biomechanics.
PLoS One
5 (3): e9769.

Rak, Y. 1991. Lucy's pelvic anatomy: its role in bipedal gait.
Jour. Hum. Evol.
20: 283–290.

Schick, K., N. Toth, G. Garufi, E. S. Savage-Rumbaugh, D. Rumbaugh, R. Sevcik. 1999. Continuing investigations into the stone tool-making and tool-using capabilities of a bonobo (
Pan paniscus
).
Jour. Archaeol. Sci.
26: 821–832.

Semaw, S. 2000. The world's earliest stone artifacts from Gona, Ethiopia: Their implications for understanding stone technology and patterns of human evolution between 2.6–1.5 million years ago.
Jour. Archaeol. Sci.
27: 1197– 1214.

Stern, J. T., R. L. Susman. 1983. The locomotor anatomy of
Australopithecus afarensis. Amer. Jour. Phys. Anthropol.
60: 279–317.

Ungar, P. 2004. Dental topography and diets of
Australopithecus afarensis
and early
Homo. Jour. Hum. Evol.
46: 605–622.

Ward, C. V. 2002. Interpreting the posture and locomotion of
Australopithecus afarensis:
Where do we stand?
Yrbk Phys. Anthropol.
45: 185–215.

CHAPTER 3: EARLY HOMINID LIFESTYLES AND THE INTERIOR WORLD

The cooking hypothesis is most comprehensively presented by Wrangham (2009), and the tapeworm research is by Hoberg et al. (2001); possible hypervitaminosis A in a fossil hominid is reported by Walker et al. (1982); and
scavenging
and early hominid social organization are discussed by Hart and Sussman (2009). Leopard-kill stealing is suggested by Cavallo and Blumenschine (1989). Stable isotope research on South African australopiths is summarized by Sponheimer and Lee-Thorp (2007), and East African
Paranthropus
isotopic analyses were reported by Cerling et al. (2011). Chimpanzee scavenging frequency was reported by Watts (2008), and spear-hunting at Fongoli by Pruetz and Bertolani (2007). Stanford (1999) and Mitani and Watts (2001) provide overviews of chimpanzee hunting behaviors; and Gomes and Boesch (2009) discuss meat-sharing and sex among chimpanzees. Use and antiquity of stone anvils by chimpanzees is discussed by Mercader et al. (2007), and power scavenging in contributions to Stanford and Bunn (2001). Calvin (1996) provides an accessible account of throwing and associated neural mechanisms. Dart quotation is from Dart (1953). For an overview and bibliography of cognitive issues see Tattersall (2011); and for mirror self-recognition see Gallup (1970). Seyfarth and Cheney (2000; quote from p. 902) reported cognitive results on monkeys; Povinelli observations and quotes come from Povinelli (2004: 33, 34).

Calvin, W. H. 1996.
How Brains Think: Evolving Intelligence, Then and Now.
New York: Basic Books.

Cavallo, J. A., R. J. Blumenschine. 1989. Tree-stored leopard kills: expanding the hominid scavenging niche.
Jour. Hum. Evol.
18: 393–400.

Cerling, T. E., E. Mbua, F. M. Kirera, F. K. Manthi, F. E. Grine, M. G. Leakey, M. Sponheimer, K. T. Uno. 2011. Diet of
Paranthropus boisei
in the early Pleistocene of East Africa. Proc.
Nat Acad. Sci. USA
108: 9337–9341.

Dart, R. A. 1953. The predatory transition from ape to man.
Intl Anthopol. Ling. Rev.
1: 201–217.

Gallup, G. G. 1970. Chimpanzees: Self-recognition.
Science
167: 86–87.

Gomes, C. M., C. Boesch. 2009. Wild chimpanzees exchange meat for sex on a long-term basis.
PLoS One
4: e5116.

Hart, D., R. W. Sussman. 2009.
Man the Hunted: Primates, Predators, and Human Evolution.
Expanded edition. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Hoberg, E. P., N. L. Alkire, A. de Queiroz, A. Jones. 2001. Out of Africa: Origins of the
Taenia
tapeworms.
Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. B.
268: 781–787.

Mercader, J., H. Barton, J. Gillespie, J. Harris, S. Kuhn, R. Tyler, and C. Boesch. 2007. 4,300-year-old chimpanzee sites and the origins of percussive stone technology.
Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA
104: 3043–3048.

Mitani, J. C., D. P. Watts. Why do chimpanzees hunt and share meat?
Anim. Behav.
61: 915–924.

Povinelli, D. J. 2004. Behind the ape's appearance: Escaping anthropocentrism in the study of other minds.
Daedalus
133 (1): 29–41.

Pruetz, J. D., P. Bertolani. Savanna chimpanzees,
Pan troglodytes verus,
hunt with tools.
Curr. Biol.
17: 412–417.

Seyfarth, R. M., Cheney, D. L. 2000. Social awareness in monkeys.
Amer. Zool.
40: 902–909.

Sponheimer, M., J. Lee-Thorp. 2007. Hominin paleodiets: The contribution of stable isotopes. In W. Henke and I. Tattersall (eds,),
Handbook of Paleoanthropology.
Heidelberg: Springer, 555–585.

Stanford, C. B. 1999.
The Hunting Apes: Meat-eating and the Origins of Human Behavior.
Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Stanford, C. B. H. Bunn. 2001.
Meat-eating and Human Evolution.
New York: Oxford University Press.

Tattersall,
I. 2011. Origin of the human sense of self. In W. van Huyssteen and E. B. Wiebe (eds.),
In Search of Self.
Chicago: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 33–49.

Walker, A. C., M. R. Zimmerman, R. E. F. Leakey. 1982. A possible case of hypervitaminosis A in
Homo erectus. Nature
296: 248–250.

Watts, D. 2008. Scavenging by chimpanzees at Ngogo and the relevance of chimpanzee scavenging to early hominid behavioral ecology.
Jour. Hum. Evol.
54: 125–133.

Wrangham, R. 2009.
Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human.
New York: Basic Books.

CHAPTER 4: AUSTRALOPITH VARIETY

For the latest dating of the South African australopith sites see Herries et al. (2009); South African australopith morphologies are reviewed in various contributions in Grine (1988). The most recent account of the Little Foot skeleton is by Clarke (2008).
Australopithecus sediba
was described by Berger et al. (2010). For dental microwear studies see Scott et al. (2005) and Ungar et al. (2008), and for a review and analysis of stable carbon isotope results see Sponheimer and Lee-Thorp (2007). For an overview of South African Early Stone Age tools, see Kuman (2003), and for the manipulatory abilities of Swartkrans hominids, see Susman (1994). The classic account of the robust “Zinjanthropus” from Olduvai Gorge is by Tobias (1967);
Homo habilis
was named by L. Leakey, Tobias, and Napier (1964); and the Ethiopian Omo Basin hominids were summarized by Howell (1978). Wood (1991) gives an account of the East Turkana hominids. The Black Skull was described by Walker et al. (1986), and the Konso skull by Suwa et al. (1997). Wood and Collard (1999) reconsidered the allocation to genera of early hominids, and M. G. Leakey et al. (2001) described
Kenyanthropus.

Berger, L. R., D. J. de Ruiter, S. E. Churchill, P. Schmid, K. J. Carlson, P. H. G. M. Dirks, J. M. Kibii. 2010.
Nature
328: 195–204.

Clarke, R. J. 2008. Latest information on Sterkfontein's
Australopithecus
skeleton and a new look at
Australopithecus. S. Afr. Jour. Sci.
104: 443–449.

Grine, F. E. (ed). 1988.
Evolutionary History of the “Robust” Australopithecines.
Hawthorne, NY: Aldine de Gruyter.