Out of the Mountains (52 page)

24.
United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs,
World Urbanization Prospects: The 2009 Revision
, 1, online at http://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/Documents/WUP2009_Highlights_Final.pdf (emphasis added).

25.
Ibid.

26.
For a discussion of these factors as they apply to rapid urbanization and slum growth in one African city, see Emmanuel Mutisya and Masaru Yarime, “Understanding the Grassroots Dynamics of Slums in Nairobi: The Dilemma of Kibera Informal Settlements,”
International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, and Applied Sciences and Technologies
2, no. 2 (March 2011): 197–213.

27.
See United Nations Environment Program,
Cities and Coastal Areas
, online at www.unep.org/urban_environment/issues/coastal_zones.asp.

28.
See Ethan Decker, Scott Elliott, Felisa Smith, Donald Blake, and Sherwood Rowland, “Energy and Material Flow Through the Urban Ecosystem,”
Annual Review of Energy and the Environment
25 (2000): 690–91. Decker and colleague list the top twenty-five megacities as Karachi, Cairo, Teheran, Tianjin, Beijing, Seoul, Moscow, New York, Delhi, London, Buenos Aires, Shanghai, Osaka, Tokyo, Los Angeles, Mexico City, São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Lagos, Jakarta, Dhaka, Manila, Bangkok, Calcutta, and Mumbai. Of these, only Delhi, Moscow, Teheran, and Beijing are inland cities—all the others lie within 100 miles of a coastline or on a major coastal river delta.

29.
Central Intelligence Agency,
World Factbook 2012
, field listing for “Urbanization,” online at https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2212.html. This entry lists the ten largest cities on the planet as Tokyo, 36.7 million; Delhi, 22.1 million; São Paulo, 20.3 million; Mumbai, 20 million; Mexico City, 19.5 million; New York–Newark, 19.4 million; Shanghai, 16.6 million; Kolkata, 15.6 million; Dhaka, 14.6 million; and Karachi, 13.2 million. Of these, only Delhi and Mexico City are not littoral cities.

30.
This definition is similar in some respects to that used by the United States and British Commonwealth navies. It is adapted from the definition applied by the Australian Army's Directorate of Future Land Warfare, where the author worked in 2003–5, in developing Australia's future operational concepts for
Manoeuvre Operations in the Littoral Environment
and
Complex Warfighting
. For the equivalent U.S. Navy definition, see U.S. Department of the Navy,
Naval Warfare
, Naval Doctrine Publication 1 (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Navy, 1994).

31.
United States Marine Corps, Task Force 58, “Execution 25 November to 25 December” (after-action review),
Strategy Page
, online at www.strategypage.com/articles/tf58/execution.asp.

32.
French Republic, Parliamentary Office for Scientific and Technical Assessment,
The Pollution in Mediterranean: Current State and Looking Ahead to 2030
, summary of the report by M. Roland Courteau, online at www.senat.fr/fileadmin/Fichiers/Images/opecst/quatre_pages_anglais/4p_mediterranee_anglais.pdf.

33.
Olivier Kramsch, “Towards a Mediterranean Scale of Governance: Twenty-First Century Urban Networks Across the ‘Inner Sea,'” in Barbara Hooper and Olivier Kramsch, eds.,
Cross-Border Governance in the European Union
(London: Routledge, 2007), 200.

34.
Iginio Gagliardone and Nicole Stremlau,
Digital Media, Conflict and Diasporas in the Horn of Africa
(London: Mapping Digital Media Program of the Open Society Foundations), December 2011, 9–10.

35.
World Bank,
Migration and Remittances Factbook 2011
, quoted in Gagliardone and Stremlau,
Digital Media
, 12.

36.
Rasna Warah, Mohamud Dirios, and Ismail Osman,
Mogadishu Then and Now: A Pictorial Tribute to Africa's Most Wounded City
(Bloomington, IN: Author House, 2012), 3.

37.
In fact, it's worth speculating that there may be a critical mass for the size of a diaspora relative to the home population, a kind of quantum effect threshold, above which flows of money, information, and people suddenly jump to a much greater level and home populations and diaspora populations begin to move in a synchronized manner despite the geographical distance between them. Several researchers have examined this issue in passing, but it's unclear how big a diaspora is needed to generate a critical mass of connectivity. Still, what is very clear is that there is a link between conflict at home and diaspora size, and that some populations—including Somalis, Tamils, Tunisians, Libyans, and perhaps Jamaicans, Haitians, and Filipinos—have reached this tipping point. See Dilip Ratha and Sonia Plaza,
Harnessing Diasporas
, International Monetary Fund, September 2009, online at www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2011/09/pdf/ratha.pdf. See also Yevgeny Kuznetsov, ed.,
Diaspora Networks and the International Migration of Skills
(Washington, DC: World Bank Institute, 2006), and Rodel Rodis, “The Tipping Point of the Filipino Diaspora,”
Global Nation Inquirer
, September 23, 2011, online at http://globalnation.inquirer.net/13403/the-tipping-point-of-the-filipino-diaspora.

38.
See Nicholas Van Hear, Frank Pieke, and Steven Vertovec,
The Contribution of UK-Based Diasporas to Development and Poverty Reduction
, ESRC Centre on Migration, Policy and Society (COMPAS), University of Oxford, April 2004, online at www.compas.ox.ac.uk/fileadmin/files/People/staff_publications/VanHear/NVH1_DFID%20diaspora%20report.pdf. See also “Sri Lankan President Calls Influential Tamil Diaspora to Invest in Post-War Progress,”
People's Daily
, November 30, 2011.

39.
See “UN Bans Trade in Charcoal from Somalia,”
East African
, February 25, 2012, online at www.hiiraan.com/news4/2012/feb/22927/un_bans_trade_in_charcoal_from_somalia.aspx.

40.
Sean Everton,
Disrupting Dark Networks: Structural Analysis in the Social Sciences
(London: Cambridge University Press, 2012).

41.
See Gordon H. Hanson, “Regional Adjustment to Trade Liberalization,”
Regional Science and Urban Economics
28 (1998): 419–44, quoted in Zhao Chen, Ming Lu, and Zheng Xu, “Agglomeration Shadow: A Non-Linear Core-Periphery Model of Urban Growth in China (1990–2006),” paper presented at Global Development Network 13th Annual Conference, June 16–18, 2012, online at http://cloud2.gdnet.org/~research_papers/Agglomeration%20shadow:%20A%20non-linear%20core–periphery%20model%20of%20urban%20growth%20in%20China%20(1990–2006).

42.
Josh Eells, “Chaosopolis: A Wild Week in Lagos,”
Men's Journal
, May 2012, online at www.mensjournal.com/article/print-view/chaosopolis-20120504.

43.
Ibid.

44.
Ibid.

45.
See Asian Development Bank,
Climate-Induced Migration in Asia and the Pacific
, September 2011, online at http://beta.adb.org/features/climate-induced-migration-asia-and-pacific.

46.
Ibid.

47.
See Independent Evaluation Group,
Facts and Figures on Natural Disasters
(Washington, DC: World Bank, 2006), online at www.worldbank.org/ieg/naturaldisasters/docs/natural_disasters_fact_sheet.pdf; see also PPRD South,
Tackling Floods, the Most Common Natural Disaster in the Mediterranean
, February 9, 2011, online at www.euromedcp.eu/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=706%3Atackling-floods-the-most-frequent-natural-disaster-in-the-mediterranean&catid=199%3Ageneral-news&Itemid=881&lang=en, and Patrick Cronin and Nora Bensahel,
America's Civilian Operations Abroad: Assessing Past and Future Requirements
(Washington, DC: Center for a New American Security, 2012), online at www.cnas.org/files/documents/publications/CNAS_AmericasCivilianOperationsAbroad_BensahelCronin_0.pdf.

48.
See T. B. C. Alavo, A. Z. Abagli, M. Accodji, and R. Djouaka, “Unplanned Urbanization Promotes the Proliferation of Disease Vector Mosquitoes,”
Open Entomology Journal
4 (2010): 1–7.

49.
See Colleen Lau, “Urbanisation, Climate Change, and Leptospirosis: Environmental Drivers of Infectious Disease Emergence,” conference paper presented at Universitas 21 International Graduate Research Conference: Sustainable Cities for the Future, Melbourne and Brisbane, November 29–December 5, 2009.

50.
David M. Bell et al., “Pandemic Influenza as 21st Century Urban Public Health Crisis,”
Emerging Infectious Diseases
15, no. 12 (December 2009): 1963–9.

51.
See N. Sarita Shah et al., “Worldwide Emergence of Extensively Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis,”
Emerging Infectious Diseases
13, no. 3 (March 2007): 380–87. See also Joshua M. Epstein et al., “Controlling Pandemic Flu: The Value of International Air Travel Restrictions,”
PLOS One
2, no. 5 (2007): 401.

52.
Decker et al., “Energy and Material Flow Through the Urban Ecosystem,” 710.

53.
See Muhammad Hayat, “Fishing Capacity and Fisheries in Pakistan,” in S. Pascoe and D. Greboval, eds.,
Measuring Capacity in Fisheries
, Food and Agriculture Organization , Fisheries Technical Paper no. 445, 2003, online at ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/006/y4849e/y4849e00.pdf.

54.
Stephen Graham, “Urban Metabolism as Target: Contemporary War as Forced Demodernization,” in Nik Heynen, Maria Kaika, and Erik Swingedouw, eds.,
In the Nature of Cities: Urban Political Ecology and the Politics of Urban Metabolism
(London: Routledge, 2006), 236.

55.
See Dominic Wabala, “65 Criminal Gang Members Arrested in Nairobi Major Swoop,”
Nairobi Star
, March 23, 2012, online at http://allafrica.com/stories/201203231381.html; Kenfrey Kiberenge, “Saccos Bring Sanity to Public Transport,” Kenya
Standard
, May 5, 2012, online at www.standardmedia.co.ke/index.php/business/mag/radio-maisha/?articleID=2000057647&;pageNo=1; County Team, “Fears of Mungiki-Like Gangs Disrupt Transport Sector,” Kenya
Standard
, September 6, 2012, online at www.standardmedia.co.ke/index.php?articleID=2000065490&;story_title=Fears-of-Mungiki-like-gangs-disrupt-transport-sector.

56.
Mutisya and Yarime, “Understanding the Grassroots Dynamics of Slums,” 197–99.

57.
Christopher Eastwood, “Identifying Sustainable Water Supplies: A Preliminary Assessment of Sustainable Water from an Urban Metabolism Perspective,” master's thesis, Q
 
ueensland University of Technology, Brisbane, 2007, 5.

58.
Yan Han, Shi-guo Xu, and Xiang-zhou Xu, “Modeling Multisource Multiuser Water Resources Allocation,”
Water Resource Management
22 (2008): 911–12.

59.
Decker et al., “Energy and Material Flow Through the Urban Ecosystem,” 697–700.

60.
Sheela Patel, founding director of the Society for the Promotion of Area Resource Centers, Mumbai, interviewed by Gary Hustwit in the documentary film
Urbanized
, Plexifilm, New York, 2012.

61.
Kees Koonings and Dirk Kruijt, “Conclusions: Governing Exclusion and Violence in Megacities,” in Kees Koonings and Dirk Kruijt, eds.,
Mega-Cities: The Politics of Urban Exclusion and Violence in the Global South
(London: Zed Books, 2009), 174–75.

62.
Jamaican garrison communities such as Tivoli Gardens are discussed later in this book. See also “Witness Provides Compelling Account of Jamaican ‘Garrisons,'”
Caribbean News Now
, online at www.caribbeannewsnow.com/news/newspublish/home.print.php?news_id=11049.

63.
Widespread rioting and civil unrest in outlying and periurban areas struck Paris (and several other French cities) in 2005 and again in 2007 and 2010, while large-scale rioting and looting occurred in parts of London in 2011.

64.
See (among many other works) Mike Davis,
Planet of Slums
(New York: Verso, 2007); Stephen Graham,
Cities Under Siege: The New Military Urbanism
(New York: Verso, 2011); Diane E. Davis,
Cities and Sovereignty: Identity Politics in Urban Spaces
(Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2011); and Saskia Sassen,
Global Networks, Linked Cities
(London: Routledge, 2002).

65.
The Australian Army published its operational concepts
Manoeuvre Operations in the Littoral Environment
and
Complex Warfighting
in 2002 and 2004, respectively, and the Royal Marines developed the
Commando 21
concept in 2003. Like these military concept papers, the U.S. Marine Corps
Vision and Strategy 2025
and the U.S. Department of Defense
Joint Operating Environment 2010
discuss the implications of urbanized littoral areas on modern warfare. See Department of Defence (Australia),
Future Warfighting Concept
(Canberra: Headquarters Australian Defence Force 2002), online at www.defence.gov.au/publications/fwc.pdf; Australian Army,
Complex Warfighting
(Canberra: Australian Army Headquarters 2005), online at www.quantico.usmc.mil/download.aspx?Path=./Uploads/Files/SVG_complex_warfighting.pdf; United States Department of Defense,
Joint Operating Environment 2010
, online at www.fas.org/man/eprint/joe2010.pdf; and United States Marine Corps,
Marine Corps Vision and Strategy 2025
(Q
 
uantico, VA: Headquarters USMC, 2009), online at www.onr.navy.mil/~/media/Files/About%20ONR/usmc_vision_strategy_2025_0809.ashx.