Russia (59 page)

23.
Adapted from Vernadsky et al.,
Source Book,
vol. 3, p. 694, col. 2.

24.
M. Baring,
What I Saw in Russia
(London, n.d.
[c.
1905]), p. 40. Also pp. 41-42.

25.
For a convenient summation of these developments see Seton-Watson,
The Russian Empire,
pp. 581—85; also Sumner,
Tsardom and Imperialism,
pp. 9f.

26.
See E. Zabriskie,
American-Russian Rivalry in the Far East
[1895—1914] (Philadelphia, 1946).

27.
For the raw numbers, see McEvedy and Jones,
Atlas of World Population History,
pp. 81, 79; for an interesting discussion of the reasons and a good introduction to the complexities of and literature on the agrarian problem see Moon,
The Russian Peasantry,
pp. 165-83,
passim.

28.
See S. O’Rourke,
Warriors and Peasants:The Don Cossacks in Late Imperial Russia
(Basingstoke, 2000), ch. 4.

29.
See N. Hans,
History of Russian Educational Policy
(London, 1931), p. 184.

30.
See,
inter alia,
P. Semenov-Tyanshanskii and V. Lamanskii,
Russia,
10 vols (St Petersburg, 1899-1914).

31.
Kerner,
The Urge to the Sea,
ch. 5, pp. 94ff.

32.
P. Rich,
The Tsar’s Colonels: Professionalism, Strategy and Subversion in Late Imperial Russia
(Cambridge, Mass., 1998), esp. pp.
7—17 passim.

33.
From 83.67 per cent in 1857 to 86.01 per cent in 1897-see Moon,
The Russian Peasantry,
table 1.3, p. 21.

34.
Figures supplied to the Russian ambassador in London by Foreign Minister N. D. Sazonov in coded telegrams dated 29 June and 10 August 1909, in Vernadsky et al.,
Source Book,
vol. 3, p. 750.

35.
Sumner,
Tsardom and Imperialism,
pp. 39-40.

36.
Wood, ed.,
The History of Siberia, p. 2.

37.
V. Maklakov was a leading Kadet and a future commissioner (minister) of justice in the provisional government. I have slightly adapted the translation in Vernadsky et al.,
Source Book,
vol. 3, p. 781.

38.
Polovtsev, quoted in Vernadsky et al.,
Source Book,
vol. 3, p. 698. Again I have adapted the translation.

39.
See Seton-Watson,
The Russian Empire,
pp. 588-9; also Sumner,
Tsardom and Imperialism,
p. 5.

40.
G. Vitarko, ‘Aviation … and imperatives of modernization’, in Lohr and Poe, eds.,
The Military and Society in Russia,
pp. 273-91.

41.
Durnovo to Nicholas II, February 1914, has been widely published. I have based these extracts on the text in Vernadsky et al.,
Source Book,
vol. 3, pp. 793-8.

42.
Seton-Watson,
The Russian Empire,
p. 700.

43.
G. Buchanan,
My Mission to Russia and Other Diplomatic Memories
(2 vols., London, 1923), vol. 2, pp. 48-9.

44.
The term
bol’sheviki
denotes members
of
the ‘majority’ Social Democrats, as distinct from the
mensheviki
who would not follow Lenin’s line.

1.
W. Chamberlin,
Russia’s Iron Age
(London, 1935), p. 253.

2.
A. Brusilow,
A Soldier’s Note-Book 1914-1918
(London, 1930), p. 326.

3.
L. Pazvolsky and H. Moulton,
Russian Debts and Russian Reconstruction
(New York, 1924), pp. 20-22, 43-4, 166-7.

4.
Grossman, ‘The industrialization of Russia’.

5.
The most thorough source on this, as for most of the early history of the USSR, is E. H. Carr,
The Bolshevik Revolution, 1917—1923
(3 vols., London, 1950-54); for a continuation of the account, see E. H. Carr, and R. Davies,
Socialism in One Country, 1924-1926
(London, 1950) and
Foundations of a Planned Economy, 1926—1929
(London, 1969).

6.
E. H. Carr,
The Soviet Impact on the Western World
(London, 1947), p. 23.

7.
The declaration is reproduced in English translation as app. 4 of Armstrong,
Russian Settlement in the North,
pp. 192-3.

8.
Allen,
The Ukraine,
pp. 318—19. The standard work on the inception of Soviet nationality policy is R. Pipes,
The Formation of the Soviet Union: Communism and Nationalism
(Cambridge, Mass., 1964).

9.
R. Service,
A History of Twentieth-Century Russia
(Cambridge, Mass., 1997), pp. 113-14; Broxup, ed.,
The North Caucasus Barrier,
p. 6.

10.
Allen,
The Ukraine,
pp. 320-4.

11.
Olcott,
The Kazakhs, pp.
134-56.

12.
See Forsyth,
A History of the Peoples of Siberia, p.
232.

13.
V. Kabuzan,
Russkii etnos v 20—80—kh godakh xx veka,
p. 273.

14.
Statistical Handbook of the USSR for 1928,
cited in V. Timoshenko,
Agricultural Russia and the Wheat Problem
(Stanford, 1932), p. 504 and table II, p. 520.

15.
The figures for Britain and the United States are for 1923. See
The Works of Nikolai D. Kondrat’ev,
ed. N. Maklasheva et al., vol. 3 (London, 1998), p. 366.

16.
Ibid., p. 295 (I have slightly adapted S. Wilsons translation).

17.
Timoshenko,
Agricultural Russia and the Wheat Problem,
pp. 26, 28-9.

18.
Ibid., table V, p. 527.

19.
Quoted in E. Rees, ‘Stalin and Russian nationalism’, in Hosking and Service, eds.,
Russian Nationalism Past and Present,
p. 85.

20.
V. Zhiromaksia,
Demograficheskaia istoriia rossii k 1930-e gody
(Moscow, 2001), p.
66.

21.
Ibid., table 12, pp. 80-81, and pp. 83-4.

22.
See the report (to Congress) of the Commission on the Ukraine Famine, Washington, DC, 1988. Also R. Conquest,
Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror Famine
(London, 1986). Service,
Twentieth-Century Russia,
pp. 202, 207, disposes of the accusation temperately and economically.

23.
Allen,
The Ukraine,
pp. 321, 324-5.

24.
Ibid., pp. 327-8, quoting
Pravda,
3 April 1930.

25.
I. N. Kiselev, ‘Estestvennoe dvizhenie naseleniia v 1930-kh godakh’, in Iu. Poliakov et al., eds.,
Naselenie Rossii 1920—1950-e gody: chislennost’, poteri, migratsii
(Moscow, 1994), pp. 59-65, esp., pp. 57-8; V. Zemskov, ‘Spetsposolentsy (1930-1959gg.)’, in ibid., pp. 145-69. See also n. 29 below.

26.
On conditions for ordinary people, methods of coping and prevailing optimism in the 1930s, see S. Fitzpatrick,
Everyday Stalinism
(Oxford, 1999), p. 75 and
passim;
on support for the transformation in society, p. 224. For a critical view of Fitzpatrick’s new approach to the Stalinist years, see M. Malia, ‘Revolution fulfilled’,
TLS,
15 June 2001, pp. 3-4.

27.
Chamberlin,
Russia’s Iron Age,
p. 49.

28.
Ibid., pp. 52-3.

29.
R. Conquest,
The Great Terror
(London, 1968).

30.
Quoted in M. Lewin,
Russian Peasants and Soviet Power
(London, 1968), p. 516.

31.
See V. Zhiromskaia, ‘Chislennost’ naseleniia Rossii v I939g.: poisk istiny’, in Poliakov et al., eds.,
Naselenie Rossii v 1920-1950-e gody,
pp. 27—47; Chamberlin,
Russia’s Iron Age,
pp. 364-6.

32.
J. Erickson,
Stalin’s War with Germany,
vol. 1:
The Road to Stalingrad
(London, 1998), pp. 63-4.

33.
See ibid., ch. 1.

34.
On the Khalkin-Gol campaign see J. Erickson,
The Soviet High Command
(London, 1961), pp. 532-57.

35.
Ibid., pp. 542-7.

36.
The point is made by A. J. P. Taylor,
The Origins of the Second World War
(London, 1969), pp. 316-19.

37.
Erickson,
The Road to Stalingrad,
ch. 2.

38.
For good accounts of the early operations, see Erickson’s
The Soviet High
Command,
chs. 17 and 18, and his
The Road to Stalingrad,
pp. 99—222.

39.
Quoted in Erickson,
The Road to Stalingrad,
p. 5.

40.
Ibid., p. 235.

41.
C. Andrew and V. Mitrokhin,
The Mitrokhin Archive: The KGB in Europe and the West
(London, 2000), p. 135.

42.
Ibid., p. 433.

43.
J. Erickson,
Stalin’s War with Germany,
vol. 2:
The Road to Berlin
(New Haven, 1999), pp. 45-6.

44.
Ibid., ch. 3, esp. p. 135.

45.
Longworth,
The Cossacks,
pp. 329-39.

1.
For details of the operation see J. Erickson,
The Road to Berlin,
pp. 139-42, and
passim
for subsequent operations.

2.
Quoted in J. Haslam,
Vices of Integrity
(London, 1999), p. 107.

3.
J. Mackintosh,
Strategy and Tactics of Soviet Foreign Policy
(London, 1962), p. 10.

4.
M. Djilas,
Conversations with Stalin
(Harmondsworth, 1969), p. 90.

5.
O. Gordievsky claims that the Germans lost 9 million men in the fighting on all fronts, whereas the Soviet Union lost between 20 and 30 million on its western front alone - see his letter in the
TLS,
4 May 2001.

6.
Primo Levi,
The Voice of Memory: Interviews 1961-1087,
ed. M. Belpoliti, trans. R. Gordon (New York, 2001), p. 52.

7.
For a concise account of the circumstances at the conclusion of the war and events up to the onset of the Cold War, see P. Longworth,
The Making of Eastern Europe
(2nd edn, London, 1997), pp. 69-82 and nn. 1-13, pp. 92-3.

8.
O. Jaszi, ‘The economic crisis in the Danubian states’,
Social Research
(New York, New School of Social Research), 2 (1935), 98-116. The extract quoted is on p. 116.

9.
See Longworth,
The Making of Eastern Europe,
pp. 80—81.

10.
M. Perrie,
The Image of Ivan the Terrible in Russian Folklore
(Cambridge, 1987), p. 117.

11.
Personal communication from the daughter.

12.
R. Slusser and J. Triska,
Calendar of Soviet Treaties
(Stanford, 1959), pp. 304, 323. The work gives an impression of intense diplomatic activity round the world in the post-war years.

13.
Mackintosh,
Strategy and Tactics of Soviet Foreign Policy,
pp. 130-32.

14.
Ibid., pp. 205ff.

15.
Pravda,
28 January 1959.

16.
Service,
Twentieth-Century Russia,
p. 351.

17.
See Bugai, N., ‘Pravda o deportatsii chechenskogoï ingushetskogo narodor’ [The Truth about the Deportation of the Chechen and Ingush Peoples],
Voprosy istorii,
7 (1990), pp. 32-44.

18.
Kappeler,
Russland als Vielvölkerreich,
pp. 310-12.

19.
V. Kabuzan,
Russkie v mire: dinamika, chislennost’ i rasselenniia 1710-1080
(St Petersburg, 1996), p. 271.

20.
Grossman, ‘The industrialization of Russia’.

21.
Olcott,
The Kazakhs,
pp. 238-40.

22.
Armstrong,
Russian Settlement in the North,
p. 170.

23.
Kabuzan,
Russkie v mire,
p. 274.

24.
Kappeler,
Russland als Vielvölkerreich,
p. 313.

25.
Andrew and Mitrokhin,
The Mitrokhin Archive,
pp. 651-5.

26.
Longworth,
The Making of Eastern Europe,
pp. 51—2
passim
and n. 12, p.
66.

27.
M. Sicker,
The Strategy of Soviet Imperialism
(New York, 1988), p. 13.

28.
The standard source for this is M. Kaser,
COMECON
(London, 1967); see also his (ed.)
The Economic History of Eastern Europe
(3 vols., Oxford, 1986).

29.
Service,
Twentieth-Century Russia,
p. 388.

30.
Sicker,
The Strategy of Soviet Imperialism,
pp. 145-7.

31.
Ibid., p. 69; Andrew and Mitrokhin,
The Mitrokhin Archive,
pp. 508-11.

32.
Andrew and Mitrokhin,
The Mitrokhin Archive,
pp. 149—77,
passim.
For a Russian account of these activities based on archives preserved by the Association of Veterans of Russia’s Foreign Intelligence Service, see
Ocherk istorii rossiiskoi vneshnei razvedki,
vol. 6: 1945-1965 (Moscow, 2003).

33.
A. Reid,
The Shaman’s Coat: A Native History of Siberia
(London, 2002), pp. 133 passim; 160-61.

1.
See Tuminez,
Russian Nationalism since 1836,
p. 42. As she points out, this policy of ‘rooting’
(korenizatsiia)
also encouraged nepotism, cronyism, corruption and the creation of virtual fiefdoms, but then nationalism has always been used as a means of accessing political power and economic advantage.

2.
V. Shlapentokh, ‘A normal system? False and true explanations for the collapse of the USSR’,
TLS,
15 December 2000, pp. 11-13. The author herself conducted several of the surveys referred to.