Salt Sugar Fat: How the Food Giants Hooked Us (59 page)

406
more than ten grams
“Report of the Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee on the Dietary Guidelines for Americans,” 2010, pages D6–17. Table salt is 40% sodium, so ten grams of salt is 4 grams of sodium, or 4,000 milligrams. A teaspoon holds about 6 grams of salt, or 2,300 milligrams of sodium.

407
published the results
Richard Mattes, and Diana Donnelly, “Relative Contributions of Dietary Sodium Sources,”
Journal of the American College of Nutrition
10, no. 4 (1991): 383–393.

408
relied heavily on salt
Mark Kurlansky,
Salt: A World History
(New York: Walker and Co., 2002).

409
“People love salt”
“10-Step Guide to Lowering the Sodium in Food and Beverage Products,” Cargill, 2009.

410
consider the number 2,300
In examining the health impact of excessive
sodium, the Dietary Guideline panel appeared ready to set the recommended maximum at 1,500 milligrams for all Americans, meeting transcripts show. But noting how far above this level most Americans were, the final report retained 2,300 milligrams as a ceiling. The American Heart Association recommends that all adults consume less than 1,500 milligrams per day. Several public health agencies have established sodium limits for children, too, ranging from 1,500 milligrams (ages 1–3 years) to 1,900 (4–8 years) to 2,200 (9–13 years).

411
lowered this target
“Report of the Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee on the Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2010.”

412
These 143 million people
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention parsed the 2010 Dietary Guidelines for sodium and determined that 57% of American adults meet the criteria for limiting their sodium intake to 1,500 milligrams a day, and that almost all of these people were exceeding the limit. “Usual Sodium Intakes Compared with Current Dietary Guidelines: United States, 2005–2008,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, Centers for Disease Control, October 11, 2011.

413
turkey dinner from Hungry Man
Owned by the Pinnacle Foods Group, the Hungry Man products have been undergoing reformulations to lower the total sodium content.

414
“Most of the things we love”
Paul Breslin to author.

415
“I think the interest in making”
Ibid.

416
researchers reported the case
L. Wilkins and C. P. Richter, “A Great Craving for Salt by a Child with Corticoadrenal Insufficiency,”
Journal of the American Medical Association
114 (1940): 866–868.

417
One of Breslin’s favorite papers
Stephen Woods, “The Eating Paradox: How We Tolerate Food,”
Psychological Review
98, no. 4 (1991): 488–505.

418
One of the most intriguing accounts
Michael Morris et al., “Salt Craving: The Psychobiology of Pathogenic Sodium Intake,”
Physiological Behavior
94, no. 4 (2008): 709–721.

419
In 2006 a law firm
Joseph McMenamin and Andrea Tiglio, “Not the Next Tobacco: Defense to Obesity Claims,”
Food and Drug Law Journal
61, no. 3 (2006): 445–518. In April 2012, a forum in Washington hosted by the Grocery Manufacturers Association included a discussion of food addiction moderated by an official from Frito-Lay, and the panelists included a Pennsylvania State University professor of nutrition named Rebecca Corwin who believes the addiction issue should be focused more on the consumer. It is the
way
these foods are being eaten, not the foods themselves, that is problematic, she argues. Highly fat and sugary foods are addictive when people go to extremes and alternate between bingeing and abstaining. Her 2009 paper in the
Journal of Nutrition
elaborates on this: “Even highly palatable food is not addictive in and of itself,” she writes. “Rather, it is the manner in which the food is presented (i.e., intermittently), and consumed (i.e., repeated, intermittent ‘gorging’) that appears to entrain the addiction process.” R. L. Corwin and Patricia Grigson, “Symposium Overview: Food Addiction: Fact or Fiction,”
Journal of Nutrition
139, no. 3 (2009): 617–619.

420
“With few exceptions”
Paul Breslin to author.

421
people are drawn
Howard Moskowitz and Jacquelyn Beckley, “Craving and the Product: Looking at What We Crave and How to Design Products around It,” Moskowitz Jacobs Inc., 2001.

422
“Don’t let hunger”
In 2001, Mars won an Effie Award from the advertising industry for a campaign that used a variation on this theme: “You’re Not You When You’re Hungry.”

423
This idea that salt
Leslie Stein et al., “The Development of Salty Taste Acceptance Is Related to Dietary Experience in Human Infants: A Prospective
Study,”
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
95, no. 1 (2012): 123–129.

424
“Our data would suggest”
Anahad O’Connor, “Taste for Salt Is Shaped Early in Life,”
The New York Times
, December 21, 2011.

425
5 billion pounds
The United States Geological Survey estimates that 4 percent of all salt produced is used for food, with chemicals and ice control dividing the lion’s share. See Dennis Kostick, “Salt,”
2010 Minerals Yearbook
, U.S.G.S.

426
ten cents a pound
Cargill declined to disclose its prices or how much salt it produces. Pricing and production figures cited in this chapter are estimated by the author derived from food industry sources, public disclosures by other salt producers, and the U.S. Geological Survey, which tracks salt production.

427
“Salt!”
Alton Brown, Cargill salt promotional video.

428
Its revenue climbed
“Working to Feed the World,” 2011 Cargill Annual Report.

429
350 chartered cargo vessels
David Whitford and Doris Burke, “Cargill: Inside the Quiet Giant That Rules the Food Business,”
Fortune Magazine
, October 27, 2011.

430
4.8 million pounds
Estimate by author derived from U.S. Geological Survey reports and interviews with agency and industry officials. Dennis Kostick, “Salt,” Mineral Commodity Summaries, U.S. Geological Survey, January 2012.

431
a clever idea
Cargill officials to author.

432
The Union deployed
Kurlansky,
Salt
.

433
this alone would prevent
Report of the Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee on the Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2010
, D6–16.

434
“Excessive intake”
Kristen Dammann to author.

435
The British knew well
Corinne Vaughan, “The U.K. Food Standards Agency’s Programme on Salt Reduction,” presentation to the Institute of Medicine, March 2009.

436
“A lot of people”
Jody Mattsen to author.

437
“Do you decide”
“10-Step Guide to Lowering the Sodium in Food and Beverage Products,” Cargill, 2009.

438
“Options such as potassium chloride”
Ibid.

439
have sought to discourage
“Guidance on Salt Reduction in Meat Products for Smaller Businesses,” British Meat Processors Association, London.

440
“People are starting to complain”
Graham MacGregor to author. MacGregor chairs an advocacy group, Consensus Action on Salt and Health. See L. A. Wyness et al., “Reducing the Population’s Intake: The U.K. Food Standards Agency’s Salt Reduction Programme,”
Public Health Nutrition
15, no. 2 (2011): 254–261.

441
“Salt really changes”
John Kepplinger to author; Michael Moss, “The Hard Sell on Salt,”
The New York Times
, May 30, 2010.

442
Kraft sent me a series
I’m grateful to the dining section staff of
The New York Times
, who joined me in tasting and evaluating this lower-salt ham.

443
“We often fall off a cliff”
Russell Moroz to author; Moss, “Hard Sell on Salt.”

444
reported a litany
“Proposals to Revise the Voluntary Salt Reduction Targets: Consultation Response Summaries,” Food Standards Agency, London.

445
“Have stopped short”
Ibid. A review of the U.K. salt reduction efforts was undertaken by the consulting firm Leatherhead Food Research, which suggested that numerous manufacturers were hitting some walls in attempting to lower the sodium in their foods. However, consumer advocates, including Graham MacGregor, believe that more reductions will be attainable as the public’s preference for salty taste is lowered. Rachel Wilson et al., “Evaluation of Technological Approaches to Salt Reduction,” Leatherhead Food Research, 2012.

446
“If we reach these goals”
Author transcript of press conference.

447
One look at the guidelines
“National Salt Reduction Initiative Packaged Food Categories and Targets,” New York City Health Department.

448
volunteered only their easiest foods
“NSRI Corporate Commitments and Comments,” New York City Health Department.

449
scientific journal reviewer
These journal reviews are highly confidential, undisclosed even to the study authors being reviewed. I thank the reviewer for sharing these comments with me. In response, Campbell said that the study was unrelated to the sodium content of its juice and that it believed the vegetables claim remained valid.

450
Their recent achievements
Data supplied by Campbell to author.

451
“The reality is”
George Dowdie to author.

452
“The question has been”
Ibid.

453
“Sodium reduction is important”
Maria Panaritis, “New Campbell’s CEO: Just Add Salt,”
Philadelphia Inquirer
, July 13, 2011; Martinne Geller, “Campbell Stirs Things Up,” Reuters, July 15, 2011. A week later, Campbell said that it remained committed to reducing the sodium in its products. “It’s vital we provide people with a choice,” Denise Morrison, the incoming CEO, said in the company’s public release. “Campbell Continues to Provide Consumers with an Array of Lower-sodium Choices,” Business Wire, July 20, 2011.

454
“We look for future results”
Martinne Geller, “Campbell Adds Salt to Spur Soup Sales,” Reuters, July 12, 2011.

455
men in the eastern part
Jaakko Tuomilehto et al., “Sodium and Potassium Excretion in a Sample of Normotensive and Hypertensive Persons in Eastern Finland,”
Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health
34 (1980): 174–178.

456
a dramatic effect
Heikki Karppanen and Eero Mervaala, “Sodium Intake and Hypertension,”
Progress in Cardiovascular Diseases
49, no. 2 (2006): 59–75. Pirjo Pietinen, “Finland’s Experiences in Salt Reduction,” National Institute for Health and Welfare, 2009.

457
“He was very much disturbed”
Karppanen to author.

458
“people get addicted”
Robert Lin to author.

459
“My thinking was that”
Ibid.

460
“Every time a consumer”
Robert Lin, “Model for Ideal Snack,” Frito-Lay memo, February 8, 1979.

461
“We fed them a potato chip”
Robert Lin to author.

462
“We wanted to confirm”
Ibid.

463
the organization has forced
The Center for Science in the Public Interest makes available its legal actions, including company responses and follow-ups, on its website.

464
“We’re open to listening”
Center for Science in the Public Interest release, August 11, 2005.

465
“I realized that conventional”
Michael Jacobson to author; Moss, “Hard Sell on Salt.”

466
“Our products are already low”
Robert Lin, “Salt,” Frito-Lay memo, March 1, 1978.

467
A handwritten document
I am grateful to Robert Lin for sharing, and discussing with me, this document, which provides a detailed record of Frito-Lay’s scientific activities on salt.

468
employee newsletter
Frito Bandwagon
, undated. The hearings were held by the Select Committee on GRAS (Generally Recognized as Safe) Substances.

469
“From a strategic point of view”
Robert Lin, “ ‘Calcium Anti-Hypertension’ Campaign,” Frito-Lay memo, January 28, 1982.

470
finally responded to Jacobson’s petition
“GRAS Safety Review of Sodium Chloride,” FDA, June 18, 1982.

471
Normally, the panel’s recommendation
Michael Taylor, “FDA Regulation of Added Salt under the Food Additives Amendment of 1958: Legal Framework and Options,” presented at Information Gathering Workshop, Committee on Strategies to Reduce Sodium Intake, Institute of Medicine, March 30, 2009.

472
“The salt people, especially”
Sanford Miller to author; Moss, “Hard Sell on Salt.”

473
“We were trying to balance”
William Hubbard to author. Ibid.

474
“When I see salty food”
Robert Lin to author.

475
“Anyone who designs a product”
Robert Lin, “Consumer Research,” Frito-Lay memo on agenda for company meeting with Greg Novak of R. J. Reynolds as a speaker, August 12, 1981.

476
go down in flames
“Oops! Marketers Blunder Their Way Through the ‘Herb Decade,’ ”
Advertising Age
, February 13, 1989.

477
“In fact, as those people aged”
Dwight Riskey to author.

478
eating more salty snacks
Gary Jacobson, “How Frito-Lay Stays in the Chips: Company Profile,”
Management Review
, December 1, 1989; Gary Levin, “Boomers Leave a Challenge,”
Advertising Age
, July 8, 1991; “Monday Memo,”
St. Louis Post-Dispatch
, August 2, 1993.

479
Stuffers in a new light
Christine Donahue, “Marketers Return to Product Testing,”
Adweek
, May 4, 1987.

480
Enrico who sunk New Coke
Enrico and Kornbluth,
Other Guy Blinked
.

481
Enrico would deploy
Dwight Riskey to author.

482
“They had very high quality”
Ibid.

483
“This … is one of the most”
Steven Witherly to author.

484
formidable research complex
Robert Johnson, “Marketing in the ’90s: In the Chips at Frito Lay, the Consumer Is an Obsession,”
Wall Street Journal
, March 22, 1991.

485
“If we can do for our category”
Jacobson, “How Frito-Lay Stays.”

486
chips performed poorly
Jane Dornbusch, “Flavor In, ’lites out; Low-Fat Products Lose Appeal; No Heavy Demand for ‘Lite’ Foods,”
Boston Herald
, June 23, 1993.

487
Levels dipped
Randolph Schmid, “Group Finds Little Change in Salt Content of Processed Foods,” Associated Press, February 12, 1986; “Who Makes the Best Potato Chip?”
Consumer Reports
, June 1991; “Those New Light Snack Foods: When Marketers Call Their Chips ‘Light,’ They Must Mean Weight, Fat Content Remains High,”
Consumer Reports
, September 1991.

488
he found that they averaged
Lin, “Salt.”

489
When it came to snacks, however
Mike Esterl, and Valerie Bauerlein, “PepsiCo Wakes Up and Smells the Cola: Criticized for Taking Eye Off Ball and Focusing on Healthy Foods, Company Plans Summer Ad Splash,”
Wall Street Journal
, June 28, 2011.

490
a two-day meeting
A transcript of this meeting, which began on March 22, 2010, was provided by Fair Disclosure Wire.

491
“The big thing that will happen here”
Ibid. In response to my questions about the investor presentation and the company’s strategies, a company spokeswoman said, “PepsiCo has a broad portfolio of food and beverage brands consumers love, and our strategy is designed to grow all parts of our business. One of the ways we’ve always grown our business is by adapting our portfolio to meet the changing needs and desires of consumers. In response to stronger consumer demand for snacks with less sodium and beverages with less sugar, we’ve developed and launched products that give consumers these options. We’ve also built an attractive lineup of health and wellness brands in growing categories like dairy, juice, whole grains and sports nutrition. We believe that offering consumers a wide range of choices that provide great taste, convenience and value will continue to drive PepsiCo’s success.”

492
famous in industry circles
Many of Dichter’s speeches, papers, and other writing are archived at the Hagley Museum and Library, Wilmington, Delaware.

493
“It was just waiting”
Alvin Hampel to author.

494
the latest results
Dariush Mozaffarian et al., “Changes in Diet and Lifestyle and Long-Term Weight Gain in Women and Men,”
New England Journal of Medicine
364, no. 25 (2011): 2392–2404.

495
“The starch is readily absorbed”
Eric Rimm to author.