Sundown Towns: A Hidden Dimension Of American Racism (86 page)
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Authors: James W. Loewen
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33
Chapter 8 discusses three Hollywood films that set sundown towns in the traditional South, where they rarely existed in real life.
Chapter 8 discusses three Hollywood films that set sundown towns in the traditional South, where they rarely existed in real life.
34
Kathy Orr, “West Lawn: From Marsh to Thriving Neighborhood,” West Lawn Chamber of Commerce,
westlawncc.org
, 1/2004; Steve Bogira, “Hate, Chicago Style”
Chicago Reader,
12/5/86.
Kathy Orr, “West Lawn: From Marsh to Thriving Neighborhood,” West Lawn Chamber of Commerce,
westlawncc.org
, 1/2004; Steve Bogira, “Hate, Chicago Style”
Chicago Reader,
12/5/86.
35
Colp resident, 9/2002.
Colp resident, 9/2002.
36
Pennsylvania teacher, e-mail, 8/2002.
Pennsylvania teacher, e-mail, 8/2002.
37
In 2000, Naperville was 3.0% African American, Edina 1.2%, and Darien 0.4%. Thus all three may have passed beyond being sundown suburbs, although since the totals include nonhousehold blacks, Darien may not have. Please note my repeated cautions against concluding that a sundown town or suburb remains sundown as of the date you read about it.
In 2000, Naperville was 3.0% African American, Edina 1.2%, and Darien 0.4%. Thus all three may have passed beyond being sundown suburbs, although since the totals include nonhousehold blacks, Darien may not have. Please note my repeated cautions against concluding that a sundown town or suburb remains sundown as of the date you read about it.
38
Meyer,
As Long as They Don’t Move Next Door,
1.
Meyer,
As Long as They Don’t Move Next Door,
1.
39
Doing otherwise would have entangled my prose in a mass of adjectives like “formerly,” “continuing,” or perhaps “recovering” sundown towns. In turn, such judgments would have led to countless errors, because I could not know if a practice confirmed in the past continues in the present.
Doing otherwise would have entangled my prose in a mass of adjectives like “formerly,” “continuing,” or perhaps “recovering” sundown towns. In turn, such judgments would have led to countless errors, because I could not know if a practice confirmed in the past continues in the present.
40
James Pool,
Hitler and His Secret Partners
(New York: Pocket Books, 1997), 117; Jewish Virtual Library,
us-israel.org/jsource/Holocaust/kristallnacht.html
, 11/2003.
James Pool,
Hitler and His Secret Partners
(New York: Pocket Books, 1997), 117; Jewish Virtual Library,
us-israel.org/jsource/Holocaust/kristallnacht.html
, 11/2003.
41
Anna editor, 10/2002; Anna librarian, 10/2002; Union County farmer, 1/2004.
Anna editor, 10/2002; Anna librarian, 10/2002; Union County farmer, 1/2004.
42
Newman, ibid; Robert Park,
Human Communities: The City and Human Ecology
(New York: Free Press, 1952), 14.
Newman, ibid; Robert Park,
Human Communities: The City and Human Ecology
(New York: Free Press, 1952), 14.
43
Untitled story about Anna,
Carbondale (Ill.) Free Press,
11/13/1909; John Baker, post at his web site at
cougartown.com
, 3/2001; Deborah Morse-Kahn,
Edina: Chapters in the City History
(Edina: City of Edina, 1998), 94—95; Edina resident, 1963; Don Cox, “Linguistic Expert Says Ancient Indian Languages Are Dying,”
Reno Gazette-Journal,
1/2/2002,
sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/news/archive/2002/01/02/state1722EST7955
. DTL; William H. Jacobsen Jr., 8/23/2003.
CHAPTER 2: THE NADIRUntitled story about Anna,
Carbondale (Ill.) Free Press,
11/13/1909; John Baker, post at his web site at
cougartown.com
, 3/2001; Deborah Morse-Kahn,
Edina: Chapters in the City History
(Edina: City of Edina, 1998), 94—95; Edina resident, 1963; Don Cox, “Linguistic Expert Says Ancient Indian Languages Are Dying,”
Reno Gazette-Journal,
1/2/2002,
sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/news/archive/2002/01/02/state1722EST7955
. DTL; William H. Jacobsen Jr., 8/23/2003.
1
Leola Bergmann, “The Negro in Iowa,”
Iowa Journal of History and Politics,
1969 [1948], 44–45.
Leola Bergmann, “The Negro in Iowa,”
Iowa Journal of History and Politics,
1969 [1948], 44–45.
2
Robert Green, Laura L. Becker, and Robert E. Coviello,
The American Tradition
(Columbus: Merrill, 1984), 754.
Robert Green, Laura L. Becker, and Robert E. Coviello,
The American Tradition
(Columbus: Merrill, 1984), 754.
3
Rayford W. Logan, who first employed “Nadir of race relations” as a term (so far as I know), used “1877–1901” in the subtitle of his 1954 book,
The Negro in American Life and Thought: The Nadir,
but his book actually treats 1877–1921, to the end of the Wilson administration. Although I use (and defend) somewhat different dates (1890–1930s), my thinking has been greatly influenced by Logan’s fine work, reprinted as
The Betrayal of the Negro
(New York: Macmillan Collier, 1965 [1954]).
Rayford W. Logan, who first employed “Nadir of race relations” as a term (so far as I know), used “1877–1901” in the subtitle of his 1954 book,
The Negro in American Life and Thought: The Nadir,
but his book actually treats 1877–1921, to the end of the Wilson administration. Although I use (and defend) somewhat different dates (1890–1930s), my thinking has been greatly influenced by Logan’s fine work, reprinted as
The Betrayal of the Negro
(New York: Macmillan Collier, 1965 [1954]).
4
In 1859, Arkansas passed a law requiring all free Negroes to leave the state by January 1, 1860. Any free blacks who remained after the deadline could be sold into slavery. But this law never applied to slaves and was more a reaction to fear of slave revolts, said to be instigated by free blacks, than an attempt to create an all-white state.
In 1859, Arkansas passed a law requiring all free Negroes to leave the state by January 1, 1860. Any free blacks who remained after the deadline could be sold into slavery. But this law never applied to slaves and was more a reaction to fear of slave revolts, said to be instigated by free blacks, than an attempt to create an all-white state.
5
Quoted in James M. McPherson,
Battle Cry of Freedom
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), vi.
Quoted in James M. McPherson,
Battle Cry of Freedom
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), vi.
6
Shepherd W. McKinley, reviewing Heather Cox Richardson’s
The Death of Reconstruction
on H-South,
h-net.org/~south/
, 5/16/2002, citing xiii–xiv.
Shepherd W. McKinley, reviewing Heather Cox Richardson’s
The Death of Reconstruction
on H-South,
h-net.org/~south/
, 5/16/2002, citing xiii–xiv.
7
See Robert Dykstra,
Bright Radical Star
(Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1997).
See Robert Dykstra,
Bright Radical Star
(Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1997).
8
In reality, Native Americans would not be included until 1924.
In reality, Native Americans would not be included until 1924.
9
Sally Albertz, “Fond du Lac’s Black Community and Their Church, 1865–1943,” in Clarence B. Davis,
Source of the Lake
(Fond du Lac, WI: Action Printing, 2002), 34—35.
Sally Albertz, “Fond du Lac’s Black Community and Their Church, 1865–1943,” in Clarence B. Davis,
Source of the Lake
(Fond du Lac, WI: Action Printing, 2002), 34—35.
10
During the Civil War and Reconstruction, expulsions happened in other states too, of course, again mostly in Democratic areas. For example, 187 African Americans lived in Washington County, Indiana, 20 miles northwest of Louisville, Kentucky, before the Civil War. By 1870, just 18 remained, and a county history published in 1916 stated, “Washington County has for several decades boasted that no colored man or woman lived within her borders.” Willie Harlen, president of the Washington County Historical Society, credits the expulsion to the Knights of the Golden Circle, a secret organization of Copperhead Democrats in northern states that also provided something of a model for the Ku Klux Klan. Cf. Emma Lou Thornbrough,
The Negro in Indiana
(Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Bureau, 1957), 225; Harlen, e-mail, 10/2002.
During the Civil War and Reconstruction, expulsions happened in other states too, of course, again mostly in Democratic areas. For example, 187 African Americans lived in Washington County, Indiana, 20 miles northwest of Louisville, Kentucky, before the Civil War. By 1870, just 18 remained, and a county history published in 1916 stated, “Washington County has for several decades boasted that no colored man or woman lived within her borders.” Willie Harlen, president of the Washington County Historical Society, credits the expulsion to the Knights of the Golden Circle, a secret organization of Copperhead Democrats in northern states that also provided something of a model for the Ku Klux Klan. Cf. Emma Lou Thornbrough,
The Negro in Indiana
(Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Bureau, 1957), 225; Harlen, e-mail, 10/2002.
11
Chesterton Tribune,
7/24/1903; Darrel Dexter,
A House Divided: Union County, Illinois
(Anna: Reppert, 1994), 75; V. Jacque Voegeli,
Free but Not Equal
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967), 89.
Chesterton Tribune,
7/24/1903; Darrel Dexter,
A House Divided: Union County, Illinois
(Anna: Reppert, 1994), 75; V. Jacque Voegeli,
Free but Not Equal
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967), 89.
12
Many soldiers had
not
died for this purpose, to be sure, but solely to hold the nation together. I know that, and Lincoln knew it. See Chapter 6 of James Loewen,
Lies My Teacher Told Me
(New York: New Press, 1995) for a more nuanced treatment of this issue. But increasingly as the war went on, that
is
why they died, and Lincoln’s saying so helped make it true.
Many soldiers had
not
died for this purpose, to be sure, but solely to hold the nation together. I know that, and Lincoln knew it. See Chapter 6 of James Loewen,
Lies My Teacher Told Me
(New York: New Press, 1995) for a more nuanced treatment of this issue. But increasingly as the war went on, that
is
why they died, and Lincoln’s saying so helped make it true.
13
Lerone Bennett,
Black Power U.S.A.: The Human Side of Reconstruction
(Baltimore: Penguin, 1969), 11.
Lerone Bennett,
Black Power U.S.A.: The Human Side of Reconstruction
(Baltimore: Penguin, 1969), 11.
14
I intend “Ku Klux Klan” as a synecdoche for all the groups—Red Shirts, Knights of the White Carnelia, and plain Democrats—who used violence and intimidation to end interracial governments in the South.
I intend “Ku Klux Klan” as a synecdoche for all the groups—Red Shirts, Knights of the White Carnelia, and plain Democrats—who used violence and intimidation to end interracial governments in the South.
15
History of Lower Scioto Valley
(Chicago: Interstate, 1884), 737; Jeanne Blackburn, e-mail, 11/2003.
History of Lower Scioto Valley
(Chicago: Interstate, 1884), 737; Jeanne Blackburn, e-mail, 11/2003.
16
James Loewen,
Lies Across America
(New York: New Press, 1999), 394–404, summarizes the collapse of Republican anti-racism after 1890.
James Loewen,
Lies Across America
(New York: New Press, 1999), 394–404, summarizes the collapse of Republican anti-racism after 1890.
17
The proportion also takes immigration into account.
The proportion also takes immigration into account.
18
See Carey McWilliams,
A Mask for Privilege
(New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1999 [1948]), 14.
See Carey McWilliams,
A Mask for Privilege
(New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1999 [1948]), 14.
19
Philip A. Klinkner and R. M. Smith,
The Unsteady March
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 96.
Philip A. Klinkner and R. M. Smith,
The Unsteady March
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 96.
20
Of course, one did not have to be Republican to dream of wealth. But tycoons such as J. P. Morgan and John D. Rockefeller were Republican, almost without exception. Democrats were more likely to deride such wealth as excessive and at base crooked, rather than a sign of merit.
Of course, one did not have to be Republican to dream of wealth. But tycoons such as J. P. Morgan and John D. Rockefeller were Republican, almost without exception. Democrats were more likely to deride such wealth as excessive and at base crooked, rather than a sign of merit.
21
Arkansas librarian, 9/2002; Douglas opinion,
Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co,
392 U.S. 409, 445–47 (1968), also quoted in Joe R. Feagin,
Racist America
(New York: Routledge, 2000), 25.
Arkansas librarian, 9/2002; Douglas opinion,
Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co,
392 U.S. 409, 445–47 (1968), also quoted in Joe R. Feagin,
Racist America
(New York: Routledge, 2000), 25.
22
After 1896, if not before, schools became segregated statewide in Delaware, Maryland, West Virginia, Kentucky, Missouri, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Texas, and Arizona, as well as much of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Kansas, and California. Of course, the South already had segregated schools.
After 1896, if not before, schools became segregated statewide in Delaware, Maryland, West Virginia, Kentucky, Missouri, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Texas, and Arizona, as well as much of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Kansas, and California. Of course, the South already had segregated schools.
23
Donald Grant,
The Anti-Lynching Movement
(San Francisco: R & E, 1975), 66–67.
Donald Grant,
The Anti-Lynching Movement
(San Francisco: R & E, 1975), 66–67.
24
Ray Stannard Baker, “The Color Line in the North,”
American Magazine
65 (1908), in Otto Olsen, ed.,
The Negro Question: From Slavery to Caste, 1863–1910
(New York: Pitman, 1971), 268; Quillen,
The Color Line in Ohio,
120; Loewen,
Lies Across America,
400.
Ray Stannard Baker, “The Color Line in the North,”
American Magazine
65 (1908), in Otto Olsen, ed.,
The Negro Question: From Slavery to Caste, 1863–1910
(New York: Pitman, 1971), 268; Quillen,
The Color Line in Ohio,
120; Loewen,
Lies Across America,
400.
25
Historian John Weaver, e-mail to H-Net Ohio History list, 1/2003.
Historian John Weaver, e-mail to H-Net Ohio History list, 1/2003.
26
Bergmann, “The Negro in Iowa,” 44–45.
Bergmann, “The Negro in Iowa,” 44–45.
27
Michael L. Cooper,
Playing America’s Game
(New York: Lodestar, 1993), 10; Gordon Morgan, “Emancipation Bowl,” Department of Sociology, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, n.d.
Michael L. Cooper,
Playing America’s Game
(New York: Lodestar, 1993), 10; Gordon Morgan, “Emancipation Bowl,” Department of Sociology, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, n.d.
28
“The Passing of Colored Firemen in Chicago,” Chicago
Defender,
3/11/1911; Lester C. Lamon,
Black Tennesseans, 1900–1930
(Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1977), 141.
“The Passing of Colored Firemen in Chicago,” Chicago
Defender,
3/11/1911; Lester C. Lamon,
Black Tennesseans, 1900–1930
(Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1977), 141.
29
Ralph R. Rea,
Boone County and Its People
(Van Buren, AR: Press-Argus, 1955), 121; Fon Louise Gordon,
Caste and Class: The Black Experience in Arkansas, 1880–1920
(Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1995), 45.
Ralph R. Rea,
Boone County and Its People
(Van Buren, AR: Press-Argus, 1955), 121; Fon Louise Gordon,
Caste and Class: The Black Experience in Arkansas, 1880–1920
(Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1995), 45.
30
Jacqueline Froelich and David Zimmermann, “Total Eclipse: The Destruction of the African American Community of Harrison, Arkansas, in 1905 and 1909,”
Arkansas Historical Quarterly
58,2 (1999): 141–42; Zimmermann quoted in Laurinda Joenks, “Roughness of Citizens Blamed on Lean Times,”
The Morning News,
5/7/2000.
Jacqueline Froelich and David Zimmermann, “Total Eclipse: The Destruction of the African American Community of Harrison, Arkansas, in 1905 and 1909,”
Arkansas Historical Quarterly
58,2 (1999): 141–42; Zimmermann quoted in Laurinda Joenks, “Roughness of Citizens Blamed on Lean Times,”
The Morning News,
5/7/2000.
31
Joenks, “Roughness of Citizens.”
Joenks, “Roughness of Citizens.”
32
Frederick Douglass pointed this out at the time, in 1895: “The American people have fallen in with the bad idea that this is a Negro problem, a question of the character of the Negro, and not a question of the nation.” Quoted in Kevin Gaines,
Uplifting the Race
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), 67.
Frederick Douglass pointed this out at the time, in 1895: “The American people have fallen in with the bad idea that this is a Negro problem, a question of the character of the Negro, and not a question of the nation.” Quoted in Kevin Gaines,
Uplifting the Race
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), 67.
33
See Baker, “The Color Line in the North,” 266.
See Baker, “The Color Line in the North,” 266.
34
Heather Cox Richardson,
The Death of Reconstruction
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001), xiii–xiv, 119, 224; McKinley, review of same on H-South,
h-net.org/~south/
, 5/16/2002.
Heather Cox Richardson,
The Death of Reconstruction
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001), xiii–xiv, 119, 224; McKinley, review of same on H-South,
h-net.org/~south/
, 5/16/2002.
35
Morgan,“Emancipation Bowl.”
Morgan,“Emancipation Bowl.”
36
Actually, only South Carolina’s ever had a black majority.
Actually, only South Carolina’s ever had a black majority.
37
Since some textbook authors still made such claims as late as the 1970s, many readers may have encountered this biased interpretation of Reconstruction in high school as fact. For correction, refer to any modern treatment of the period, such as Bennett,
Black Power, U.S.A.,
or Eric Foner,
Reconstruction
(New York: Harper & Row, 1988).
Since some textbook authors still made such claims as late as the 1970s, many readers may have encountered this biased interpretation of Reconstruction in high school as fact. For correction, refer to any modern treatment of the period, such as Bennett,
Black Power, U.S.A.,
or Eric Foner,
Reconstruction
(New York: Harper & Row, 1988).
38
Albert Bushnell Hart,
Essentials of American History
(New York: American Book Co., 1905), 504; W. E. B. DuBois,
Black Reconstruction
(Cleveland: World Meridian, 1964 [1935]), 722; Loewen,
Lies Across America,
39, 164–93.
Albert Bushnell Hart,
Essentials of American History
(New York: American Book Co., 1905), 504; W. E. B. DuBois,
Black Reconstruction
(Cleveland: World Meridian, 1964 [1935]), 722; Loewen,
Lies Across America,
39, 164–93.
39
Carl Wittke,
Tambo and Bones
(Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1968 [1930]), 93; Joseph Boskin,
Sambo
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 85; James Weldon Johnson,
Black Manhattan
(New York: Knopf, 1930), 93; James DeVries,
Race and Kinship in a Midwestern Town
(Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1984), 51.
Carl Wittke,
Tambo and Bones
(Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1968 [1930]), 93; Joseph Boskin,
Sambo
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 85; James Weldon Johnson,
Black Manhattan
(New York: Knopf, 1930), 93; James DeVries,
Race and Kinship in a Midwestern Town
(Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1984), 51.
40
Loewen, “Teaching Race Relations Through Feature Films,”
Teaching Sociology
19 (1991): 82; Adrian Turner,
A Celebration of
Gone with the Wind (New York: W. H. Smith, 1992), 166, citing
Variety.
Loewen, “Teaching Race Relations Through Feature Films,”
Teaching Sociology
19 (1991): 82; Adrian Turner,
A Celebration of
Gone with the Wind (New York: W. H. Smith, 1992), 166, citing
Variety.
41
Richard Weiss, “Racism in the Era of Industrialization,” in Gary Nash and Richard Weiss, eds.,
The Great Fear
(New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston, 1970), 136; Andrew R. Heinze, “Jews and American Popular Psychology,”
Journal of American History
88, 3 (2001): 959–60; Dinesh D’Souza,
The End of Racism
(New York: Free Press, 1995), 118.
Richard Weiss, “Racism in the Era of Industrialization,” in Gary Nash and Richard Weiss, eds.,
The Great Fear
(New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston, 1970), 136; Andrew R. Heinze, “Jews and American Popular Psychology,”
Journal of American History
88, 3 (2001): 959–60; Dinesh D’Souza,
The End of Racism
(New York: Free Press, 1995), 118.
42
John Higham,
Strangers in the Land
(New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1955), 265; Gordon A. Craig, “The X-Files,”
New York Review of Books,
4/12/2001, 57.
John Higham,
Strangers in the Land
(New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1955), 265; Gordon A. Craig, “The X-Files,”
New York Review of Books,
4/12/2001, 57.
43
The last of the latter was Carleton Coon, whose
The Origin of Races,
published in 1962 (New York: Knopf), claimed that
Homo sapiens
evolved five different times, blacks last. Its poor reception by anthropologists, followed by evidence from archaeology and paelontol-ogy that mankind evolved once, and in Africa, finally put an end to such pseudoscience.
The last of the latter was Carleton Coon, whose
The Origin of Races,
published in 1962 (New York: Knopf), claimed that
Homo sapiens
evolved five different times, blacks last. Its poor reception by anthropologists, followed by evidence from archaeology and paelontol-ogy that mankind evolved once, and in Africa, finally put an end to such pseudoscience.
44
Logan,
The Betrayal of the Negro,
360–70; Nancy J. Weiss, “Wilson Draws the Color Line,” in Arthur Mann, ed.,
The Progressive Era
(Hinsdale, IL: Dryden, 1975), 144; Harvey Wasserman,
America Born and Reborn
(New York: Macmillan, 1983), 13 1.
Logan,
The Betrayal of the Negro,
360–70; Nancy J. Weiss, “Wilson Draws the Color Line,” in Arthur Mann, ed.,
The Progressive Era
(Hinsdale, IL: Dryden, 1975), 144; Harvey Wasserman,
America Born and Reborn
(New York: Macmillan, 1983), 13 1.
45
W. E. B. DuBois,
The Seventh Son
(New York: Random House, 1971), 2:594.
W. E. B. DuBois,
The Seventh Son
(New York: Random House, 1971), 2:594.
46
Richard Delgado and Jean Stefancic,
Home-Grown Racism
(Boulder: University of Colorado Latino/a Research & Policy Center, 1999), 30, 44, 74.
Richard Delgado and Jean Stefancic,
Home-Grown Racism
(Boulder: University of Colorado Latino/a Research & Policy Center, 1999), 30, 44, 74.
47
Willis D. Weatherford and Charles S. Johnson,
Race Relations
(Boston: D.C. Heath, 1934), 314; Lorenzo J. Greene, Gary Kremer, and Antonio Holland,
Missouri’s Black Heritage
(Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1993), 151; Bergman and Bergman,
The Chronological History of the Negro in America,
458.
Willis D. Weatherford and Charles S. Johnson,
Race Relations
(Boston: D.C. Heath, 1934), 314; Lorenzo J. Greene, Gary Kremer, and Antonio Holland,
Missouri’s Black Heritage
(Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1993), 151; Bergman and Bergman,
The Chronological History of the Negro in America,
458.
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