The Complete Idiot's Guide to the Roman Empire (34 page)

Chapter 13
 
Easing into Empire

• How Octavian transformed Rome
  
• The principate as transition between Republic and Dominate (Monarchy) during the Empire
  
• Octavian's policies as Augustus and as
  princeps
  
• Problems with Augustus's succession for the Julio-Claudians
  

By the time of Octavian's victory over Antony in 30
B
.
C
.
E
., the Republic lay in ruins. The nobility and upper classes had been decimated by the wars. The senate, packed and repacked by Caesar and the triumvirs (Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus, discussed in Chapter 7, “Let's Conquer . . . Ourselves! The Roman Revolution and the End of the Republic”), was too large to be effective and anyway lacked men of both character and experience to be effective. Besides, the “constitution” had now been changed, circumvented, or completely ignored for so long and in so many ways that it would be hard to know which Republic to return to. The economy was in ruins, the food supply was in jeopardy, and hundreds of thousands of people were homeless and dislocated. Moreover, the armies of the triumvirs, ostensibly Caesar's army, was now a restless and dangerous giant—homeless, unpaid, and without a settlement plan.

In short, the drive to be preeminent in prestige, power, and authority had destroyed the state that Romans like Caesar wanted to preside over. But it had also shown that the structure of the old Republic was incapable of governing both itself and its empire
without strong centralized control. So long as politicians had the means to develop sufficient military power to threaten the state or could use violence at home to achieve political ends, there would be no order. And yet, the essence of the Republic was
against
centralized power and functioned, in the main, because it allowed for participation and competition; moreover, as the assassination of Caesar in 44
B
.
C
.
E
. had shown, the Romans were unwilling to submit to anyone who appeared to be a king. Something new was needed, and in the aftermath of Octavian's victory over Antony at Actium, Rome needed it
now.

In this chapter, we'll see how Octavian and the Romans transformed the Republic into an Empire, and transformed Octavian from Caesar's heir into the
princeps
and first Roman emperor, Augustus.

The Mediterranean was exhausted and eager for some kind of stability and peace. Octavian was hailed as that peacemaker from the east to the west and returned to Rome in 29
B
.
C
.
E
. to more than a hero's welcome. But what would he do? Clearly he was in the position to do
something.
Besides public adulation, he commanded the armies of Rome, had complete political authority, and possessed the vast wealth of Egypt as a personal fortune. Octavian would need all these, and the same guile and determination that he displayed in coming to power, to create stability. He did so remarkably well, walking a fine line between restoring the Republic and maintaining personal control over the military and political levers of power.

 
Great Caesar's Ghost!
Augustus's unofficial and official titles have later derivatives. Besides getting “principate” and “prince” from
princeps,
and “ emperor” from imperator, his title of Caesar became an official name for the Byzantine emperors, and the source of both “kaiser” and “czar.”

Officially, through powers given to him by the state, and unofficially, through his personal authority, Octavian presided over a Republic, which carried on (at least in name) as before but under the watchful and controlling grip of “Augustus,” its
princeps,
Caesar, and imperator. Under Octavian's long tenure, Rome grew in stability, prosperity, literature and culture, while at the same time, the Republic evolved into a monarchy governing the Empire.

Before things get too confusing, you have to know that the triumvir “Octavian” and the princeps and emperor “Augustus” are names for the same person. The senate gave Octavian the name Augustus, which means Revered One, in 27
B
.
C
.
E
. Giving Romans special names in recognition of their service was nothing new (remember Scipio Africanus or Sulla Felix or
Pompeius Magnus?), but here it's important to remember because classicists and historians refer to the upcoming period as the Augustan Age. If you miss it, all of a sudden Octavian disappears, and you read about this great Augustus and wonder “Where in the
infernis
did
this
guy come from?”

It's also easy to get confused with the term
Principate,
which was the transition between the Republic and rule of the Empire by a monarch. The Principate originates with Augustus (29
B
.
C
.
E
.–
C
.
E
. 14), who ruled Rome as the
princeps,
or “first citizen,” of Rome. It's an ambiguous title, but it reflects how much Augustus was able to deal with situations as they arose as much by means of his personal authority as simply by military or legal might.

Augustus's successors, however, continued to wear the title of
princeps
, and you'll read about the “principate” of various emperors until the time of Diocletian. At this point, the Principate ends and gives way to the “Dominate,” because under Diocletian the emperor was officially recognized as
dominus
(“lord and master”). The practical transition to monarchy happened so much faster than the transition in official titles that, when people talk about the “Principate,” they often mean “Principate (of Augustus).”

 
When in Rome
The
Principate
(from
princeps
, “first citizen”) covers the period from Augustus (27
B
.
C
.
E
.) to the emperor
Diocletian
(
C
.
E
. 293).

The
Dominate
(from Latin
dominus
, “lord and master”) covers the period from Diocletian (
C
.
E
. 293) forward.

The
Empire
generally refers to the period after the Principate of Augustus (
C
.
E
. 14) when it is clear (at least to us) that the Roman Empire was ruled by an emperor, whether he was officially recognized as a
princeps
or
dominus
.

 
Veto!
The term “Augustan Age” often applies to a literary period centered on Augustus's rule—it doesn't coincide precisely with Augustus's reign. Classicists usually think of this Augustan Age as dating from the death of Caesar (44
B
.
C
.
E
.) to the death of the poet Ovid (
C
.
E
. 17).

The last century of the Republic had demonstrated that the Sullan conception of returning Rome to the “ancient constitution” (read: control by the senate and nobility) was inoperable. Caesar's career had shown the power of popular support and that centralized authority was needed, but he had been too obviously
autocratic
for the Roman nobility to tolerate. Antony's fall from power demonstrated that both the support of the nobility and a broad
appeal to Roman patriotism and values were essential for maintaining control.

 
When in Rome
Autocracy
is rule by one person (the autocrat), whose power is unlimited and who rules subject to no higher power or authority. You don't need an official autocracy for someone to be an autocrat or to act in an autocratic fashion!

Octavian had to find a kind of hybrid solution that would be acceptable to all classes, and would balance Rome's need for central authority and stability with its tradition of freedom, participation, and individual ambition in the service of the state. You can roughly divide the evolution of his solution into three periods. These periods track a seesaw settling of Augustus's powers from extraordinary powers as triumvir to the established powers of an emperor, and the transition of the Roman state from Republic in emergency mode to monarchy with a republican veneer.

From 30
B
.
C
.
E
. to 27
B
.
C
.
E
., Octavian governed Rome as a sole ruler, but without any real formal definition to his duties and powers. He had allowed the law authorizing the powers of the triumvirs to lapse in 33
B
.
C
.
E
. to deny legitimacy to Antony. The Romans had voted him a wide array of privileges and powers in the jubilation following Actium, and many cities and citizens had taken an oath of personal allegiance to him.

Even so, Octavian seems to have held off from trying to either solidify his authoritarian powers as Caesar had done, or to define his role vis-à-vis the senate, until things began to settle and he could see what was to be done for the long term. Officially, he was voted consul in 31
B
.
C
.
E
. and every year after and remained imperator in command of the army. He, and a small group of intimates such as Maecenas and Agrippa
,
personally managed the affairs of the Empire and used his personal fortune to stabilize the entire system.

Caius Cilnius Maecenas became extremely powerful and influential as Augustus's friend, advisor, and patron of literature and the poets Virgil and Horace. Although he never held and office, he was Octavian's representative at many important occasions. Their friendship was said to have cooled somewhat in their later years, although Maecenas left a magnificent Roman estate to Augustus at his death around 8
B
.
C
.
E
.

Marcus Vepsanius Agrippa was Octavian's right hand military commander and advisor. Agrippa was responsible for nearly all of Octavian's military successes on land and at sea, including Actium. Agrippa remained integral to Augustus's principate, and Augustus probably intended Agrippa to succeed him. He temporarily gave Agrippa his signet ring when it looked like he might die of illness in 23
B
.
C
.
E
., gradually made Agrippa nearly his equal in power, and had him marry his daughter, Julia. But Agrippa died suddenly in 12
B
.
C
.
E
. with children too young, and succession passed eventually to Augustus's stepson, Tiberius.

In 27
B
.
C
.
E
., Octavian convened the senate. He claimed that the burdens of sole leadership had become too great, and that the time had come for him to make good on his promises to return the state to the senate and people of Rome. He dramatically resigned his powers and declared that he had restored the Republic. The senate (at least those who had been unprepared) was stunned. It pleaded with Augustus to retain some part in the state, and he agreed to accept command and control of the provinces and legions of Gaul, Spain, Syria, and Egypt. The senate voted him the title “Augustus” in gratitude.

Although this meeting was probably carefully gauged and staged by Augustus, his supporters, and advisors, it marks the beginning of a seesaw settling in of official rights and powers between Augustus and the senate. Augustus remained one of the consuls until 23
B
.
C
.
E
., when a near fatal illness seems to have changed his approach. From then, Augustus seems to have shifted his attention both to creating a successor and to establishing the position and powers of the
princeps.
He resigned the consulship. In its place, he retained command and control of the imperial provinces, but this command was declared to be
maius,
meaning greater than other authorities. In place of the consulship, he was given tribunician powers for life. This gave him the power of presenting and vetoing legislation, interceding where he saw fit for the good of the Roman people.

 
Roamin' the Romans
Augustus bragged that he had “found Rome in brick, and left it in marble.” When you visit Rome, you can see one of these projects, the Pantheon, which was first constructed during this period. The building was destroyed by fire and rebuilt by the emperors Hadrian and Severus. The facade bears the title,
M Agrippa L f cos tertium fecit:
“Marcus Agrippa, son of Lucius, built this as consul for the third time.”

In 19
B
.
C
.
E
., Augustus received consular powers for life. Scholars debate the precise reasons why the shifts in powers and titles between 27, 23, and 19
B
.
C
.
E
. came about. Nevertheless, it's clear that Augustus and the Romans were finding their way, within their own tolerances and with some semblance of rules, to something new that they didn't have, and for the most part didn't want, a name for.

From 19
B
.
C
.
E
. onward, however, Augustus seems to have firmly established the power of his principate. His pervasive power and authority settled in to become a regular and (for the most part) accepted part of Rome. Elections continued, the senate met, debated, and managed a portion of the state, and trials were held, but all with a nod, a nudge, or with the conspicuous deference of the
princeps.
Romans not only looked to Augustus to guide matters, it practically demanded that he approve or sanction
them. By the time that he was made
pontifex maximus
in 5
B
.
C
.
E
., Augustus had come to both embody and symbolize Rome.

Besides administering the Empire, Augustus was primarily concerned about firming up the Roman borders and establishing a successor. He was never in good health, and a nearly fatal illness in 23
B
.
C
.
E
. put the question of succession on the front burner. Although that was technically up to the Roman senate and people, it was up to Augustus to assure a smooth transition and to avoid another civil war after his death. He had difficulty with this. Although Augustus tried to arrange for a successor from the Julian side of his family to follow him, he eventually was forced to settle on Livia's son, Tiberius, who peacefully succeeded Augustus after his death in
C
.
E
. 14.

Augustus's gradual, though decisive, approach to the principate can be summed up in one of his favorite expressions:
festina lente,
“Make haste, slowly.” This, coupled with Augustus's willingness to intervene and oversee practically everything, and his 41- year position at Rome's helm, allowed for the changes he brought about to become, for the most part, permanent.

 
Lend Me Your Ears
“He abandoned being a triumvir and fashioned himself a consul or, as tribune, content to protect the people. When he had seduced the military with gifts, the people with food, and all with sweet tranquility, he gradually usurped the powers of the senate, magistrates, and courts. No real opposition remained—the bravest men were casualties of battle and proscriptions. He elevated the remaining nobility financially and politically according to their willingness to serve him and they, enriched by his regime, preferred the safety of their new arrangement to the dangers of the old. Nor did the provinces object: competition and greed of the wealthy and the governors had undermined the Republic's legitimacy; power, favoritism, and primarily money had rendered the laws no help whatsoever.”

—Tacitus,
The Annals of Rome,
1.2

If you look back at his career, you see that Augustus's official powers stemmed from his control of the imperial provinces and their armies, his continuous power as consul or proconsul or tribune. These, however, are only an expression of the personal power and authority that Augustus had over Rome. The Romans not only recognized him as the
princeps,
but (and with good reason) as the
pater patriae,
“father of his country.” Augustus's prestige went hand in hand with his political and military powers, and he could use his immense personal wealth, which was sufficient to bail the entire state and military out of several financial crises, to bring about results. In addition, Augustus formed and sometimes served on municipal boards, served on juries, heard cases, and advanced a whole cultural, not just political, agenda for the reforming Roman state. He was, in effect, everywhere.